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JICTS FOR FARMERS;

ALSO FOR

THE FAMILY CIRCLE.

A COMPOST OF RICH MATERIALS FOR ALL LAND-OWNERS,

ABOUT

D03IESTIC ANIMALS AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY;

FARM BUILDINGS;

FAIIM Cr.OPS, TOOLS. FEIfCES, FERTILIZATION, DRALMNG, AND IRRIGATION.

Illustnitcli toitlT .steel ingtuiiiiigs.

EDITED BY

SOLOIST ROBINSOIS^,

AGRIUCLTL-RAL BDITOK Of TiUi NEW TORK "TRIBUNE," AND AUTHOK OP SEVERAL POPULAR WORKS.

VOLUME I,

NEW YORK: JOHNSON AND WARD, PUBLISHERS,

No. 113 FULTON STREET. 1805.

Entered, according to Act of Congress, in tlie year 1803, by A. J. JOHNSON,

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of tlie United States for the Southern District of New York.

DAVIES & KENT, 1S8 William Strtet, JV. 1'.

PLATE I.

(The Fko.nti9pieok.)

This is the genial face of a fanner, engaged in a work of love for his calling. It is placed here in opposition to the wishes of the author. He has been persuaded to allow his face to be seen by those who purchase this collection of things useful to a very numerous class through the solicitation of the publisher, who knows that it will be a satisfaction to them to see how their old friend looks at the age of sixty. An old friend he will seem to those who read his earnest appeals for agricultural impi'ovement twenty or thirty years ago. As a writer and lecturer upon agri- culture, and extensive traveler to observe its condition in the United States, few men are better knovtrii than the original of this portrait. Therefore this likeness will be, the publisher believes, highly appre- ciated as well by those who look upon a familiar face as those who see it here for the first time.

The author was born a farmer, and will probably end his days where he now lives (a few miles out of the busy hum of the city), in the peaceful quiet of his "home in the country," where this volume of fiicts for farmers has been prepared as a last legacy of his good-will to the brotherhood.

Like other farmers' sons of New England, he learned to follow the plow there, though in early life he became a Western pioneer, and while a prairie farmer, became widely known as a writer advocating agricultural improvement, and more widely, in 1841, as the origin- ator of the National Agricultural Society, and ea'-nest advocate of State and County societies. His connection with the New York Tribune since 1850 wiU make this picture interesting to all its readers. It is for these reasons that the publisher has incurred the expense of its production. ••

^m^y

PREFACE.

THE AUTHOR TO HIS READERS.

"Facts for Farmers?" "What facts?" "What new theories have we here in a jionderous volume ? Is it iilled with dry dis- sertations about what farmers should or should not do?" "What does this author know about farming ?"

The author answers — the last question first. Nothing. Who does? He does not advance new theories. He only collects old ones. He has made a ponderous volume, not of dry dissertations, but of short, ci-isp facts. The book is full of little things ; glean- ings from many fields ; from all the agricultural papers ; from con- versations of farmers ; from talks at farmers' clubs ; from books a little ; from personal experience much ; — from the memory of a long- life devoted to the practice and study of agriculture, this volume is born. It is the fruit of years of labor in a great and good field. It certainly contains much that will be useful to all classes who till the earth, or live in farmers' houses. It should be in every rural home, as a work of reference. It is arranged in the most con- venient form for this purpose. Each chapter comprises one general subject. Each section embraces a separate branch. Each num- bered paragraph is complete in itself, and conveys an item of infor- mation. Each subject is completely indexed. As a whole, though containing much, it is not an encylopedia of agriculture. It does not pretend to teach all that a farmer should know. That must be learned by daily perusal of agricultural papers and books.

PREFACE.

Tliougli not perfect, farmers will find this book a useful one. If not invaluable, I hope it is one that they can not afford to do with- out. In its compilation, the author has enjoyed many facilities and much experience : he has also labored under many difficulties, while daily engaged as an agricultui'al editor of a great daily and weekly paper. You will find here stored up for future use many of the valuable little items that you have read approvingly in the Tribune, and many from other sources, useful to every farmer's family, and worthy of preservation.

Usefulness instead of elegance has been aimed at. I have given more facts than theories. I have often given the opinions of several upon the same subject, and, as some of these vaiy, I leave the reader to adjust differences.

In trying to avoid diffuseness, I have left much for inference, and purposely treated subjects iu such a manner as to induce readers to make further research. A word of explanation. At thq end of the volume you will find a list of agricultural papers, which the author had read for years previous to the commencement of this compilation. Also a list of individuals, some of whom are eminent authority in agricultural knowledge. From all these he has drawn matter, sometimes with, and sometimes without, credit to individ- uals, when facts have been condensed from their articles. Con- ciseness has been a study ; else, how could twelve hundred subjects be crowded into a thousand pages ? Those whose articles I have used, must not complain that I have pruned too closely, or failed to give credit in all cases where credit is due. I freely acknowledge my obligations to all.

This book is one that may be opened at any page, profitably, to occupy five minutes' leisure. It is printed in such large, clear type that it can be easily read. The author and publisher hope that it will be. Then it is illustrated as no agricultural book published iu America ever has been. Look at the many large, handsome.

PREFACE.

steel engravings ! These alone are worth the cost of the whole volume.

Farmers ! you ai'o earnestly invited to read, if nothing more, the titles and contents of chapters, and their subdivisions of sections. If you do that, and find nothing that promises instruction, lay the volume aside. If so far it is promising, turn over its pages, glanc- ing at the black-letter titles of paragraphs. Of one thing be as- sured ; lengthy as the volume appears, it is not made so by extreme dilution ; the last chapter is better than any that precedes it. Throughout, no subject is lengthily treated ; no subject is treated that does not contain something useful to some one ; something that you can not always remember, but which you should always have at hand, convenient for frequent consultation.

To those who know the name of the author — and the number is large — I hope this book will be a welcome bequest. I hope it will be the means througli which that name may live in love and honor with your children and children's children around many an American hearthstone.

Of the author's portrait, a word. It is the publisher, and not the author, who inserts it. It represents him correctly, as he is at the age of nearly sixty.

In conclusion, I earnestly hope these Facts will be an acceptable offering to a very large number of those whose prosperity I would promote, for I am one of the Buotheriiood of American Farmers. To them it is commended, with the love and respect of their old friend,

SOLON ROBINSON.

New York, May 1, 1863.

	CONTENTS.	PAGE 13 19 31 51 5G 60 81 97 123 157 176 203 218 275
CHAPTER I. DOMESTIC ANIMALS. Section I.— INTRODUCTION TO FACTS ABOUT STOCK Sec. II.— swine
Tliis section embraces facts about the best breeds, and best mode of feeding, gross and net weight, etc. Sec. III. — COWS : What is a good cow, and how to choose one; food necessary; health;
Sec. IV. —BEEVES : Eeeord of the largest known, and their weights Sec. v.— STATISTICS OF THE NEW YORK CATTLE MARKET, and Improvements in
Sec. VI.— FEEDING CATTLE AND CARE OF FARM STOCK : Selecting calves ; shelter ; training ; kindness ; value of kinds of feed ; use of salt ; watering ; diseases of cattle. . . . Sec. VII.— sheep HUSBANDRY : Breeds of sheep ; care and management ; weight of hay
Sec. VIII.— HORSES AND MULES : History of the horse ; varieties ; how to use ; proper tize ; color ; diseases ; treatment of colts ; how to shoe horses ; breeding horses and
Sec. IX. — POULTRY ; Full description of all kinds of poultry, and proper treatment CHAPTER H. SMALL ANIMALS AND INSECTS. Sec. X. — BEES : Their history, use, and value, management, and reasons for keeping Sec. XL— BIRDS : Reasons for preserving ; their food ; and laws for protecting
Sec. XII. — ENTOMOLOGICAL : Wliat are insect.^, and what kinds mfest and injure various crops, and how to detect friends from foes, and various remedies Sec. Xin.— wild AND TAME ANIMALS OF THE FARM : Dogs, cats, rats, mice, moles, rabbits, squirrels, gophers, skunks, toads, goats, camels, and breeding fish for family use . CHAPTER HI. TUE FAEMERY. TUE BUILDINGS, TAEDS, WELLS, CISTEENS, AQUEDDOTS, AND STIJUCTUEES NECESSAET TC CAEET ON THE BUSINESS OF THE FARM, BEIKFLY DESCEIBED. Sec. XIV.— farm-houses : They should be convenient, roomy, light, ventilated ; their in-

	.
	viii CONTENTS.
	Sec. XV.— cellars, CHIMNEYS, AND ICE-HOUSES ; How to Imihl them, and their
	Sec. XVI.— the BAKN AND ITS Al'PURTENANCES : Location, size, and use of barns ;
	Sec. XVII.— WA'IT.R FOR THE KAKMERY : Cisterns, size, cost, and how to build ; ,ique-
	ducts and wells, how to construct ; hydraulic rams 308
	Sec. XVIII. -STACKING AND STORING GRAIN ; CORN CRIRS, PIGGERIES, AND
	PIG FEEDING ; SMOKE-HOUSE, AND CURING BACON ; FRUIT-DRYING HOUSE. 318
	Sej. XIX.- ECONOMICU. FARM RUILDINGS : Balloon frames, concrete walls, and other
	cheap styles of building ; how to make balloon frames, and their cost 32-5
	Sec. XX.— ROOFS AND ROOFING : Paints and whitew.i.«h for farm buildings ; nails ; mor-
	tar ; farm gates ; sawed shingles, their value, and hciw to preserve shingles 332
	Stc. XXI. -LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS: Protection of farm buildings from fire ; windroills
	and their use "... 842
	CHAPTER IV.
	DOMESTIC ECONOMY.
	Sec. XXII.— the FOOD QUESTION: Quantity, quality, variety, adaptation, adulteration.
	changes produced hy cooking, water for cooking, and effect on health 3-')l
	Pec. XXIII -^THE BRE,\.D QUESTION : Varieties ; quality ; how to make bread and yeast,
Sec. XXIV.— SUBSTITUTES FOR BREAD, in green corn, dried corn, pop-corn, hominy, and
Sec. XXV.-EXCERPTA OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE FOR HOUSEWIVES : Economy of
	lights; use of tea, coffee, and sugar; preserving fruits, pork, hams, and beef; remedies
Sec XXVI.- DOME?!TIC WINES, CIDER, AND PRESERVES : Rules of wine-making
	from various fruits, and cider and vinegar making 419
Sec. XXVII.— HYGIENIC : Prep.aratiiin of food for the sick ; remedies for poisons, bites,
	Sec. XXVIII.— ITIE DAIRY : Butter and cheese making ; how much milk for a pound of
	CHAPTER V.
	THE gaehen and its fkuits.
	Skc. XXIX. -pleasure and PROFIT OF GARDENING : Origin and history of veg-
Sec. XXX.— GARDEN CULINARY VEGETABLES: Protection from insects; value of va-
	rious things for food ; chiccory culture ; what should be grown in the garden ; number of
	Skc. XXXI. —THE IXOWEK GARDEN: Varieties and cultivation of flowers ; suitable soil
	and pi eparatifin ; lists of choice flowers ; flowers grown as a crop ^>00
_

	CONTESTTS. ix
	PAQK Sec. XXXII. — LAWNS : How to make and how to keep them ; trees and plant.s suitable for
Sec. XXXni.— HOT-BEDS : Cold frames plant protectors ; how to make and use hot-beds . 62i Sec. XXXIV.— small FRUITS OF THE GARDEN : Currants, varieties and cultivation ; strawberries, variety and growth ; raspberries ; blackberries ; quinces 030
	CnAPTER YI.
	THE OKCHARD.
	Sec. XXXV.— propagation, PLANTING, AND CULTIVATION OF TREES : Time to
Sec. XXXVI.— the AET OF PRUNING, GRAFTING, AND BUDDING : How and when to prune ; how and when to bud and graft ; how to make wax 570 Sec. XXXVII.— APPLE AND PEACH TREES: Their general management; select list of apples, and descriptions ; peach-trees, how to grow ; how to treat an old orchard 579 Sec. XXXVIII. — CHERRIES : Best varieties ; soil, situation, and cultivation ; history, use.
Sec XXXIX.— PEARS : Soil, situation, cultivation, and varieties ; select list of sorts; when to gather and how to ripen ; is the cultivation profitable 601 Sec XL.— plums, NECTARINES, APRICOTS, MULBERRIES, AND OTHER FRUIT : How to transplant fruit ; choice selection of plums 012 Sec. XLI.— MISCELLANEOUS M.ATTERS ABOUT FRUIT CULTURE : Cranberries as a crop ; how to grow them ; best varieties ; cider-making 021
	CHAPTER VII.
	THE VINEYARD.
	Sec XLH.— HOW TO PLANT AND CULTIVATE VINES : What sorts to plant ; history of varieties ; profits of culture ; grape-growing in California 030 Sec. XLIII. - CULTURE OF GRAPES FOR WINE : Rules for wine-making ; wine from various kinds of grapes ; rules of a French wine-maker ; rules of American wine-makers 657
	CHAPTER VIII.
	C E R E A I, I A .
	Sec. XLIV.— wheat, RYE, OATS, BARLEY, MILLET, BUCKWHEAT : Preparation of soil and fertilization ; quantity of aeed ; harvesting, stacking, and storing ; thrashing and cleaning ; profits of wheat culture ; oats, how and when to sow ; cultivation of barley ; buckwheat ; millet 067
Sec. XLV. — INDIAN CORN: Its history; product; profit as a crop; when to plant, and how to cultivate ; great yield per acre. North and South ; how to store corn, and how to
		_

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER IX.

THE GKASSES, THEIR CULTIVATION AND USE.

p Seo. XLVI.— mowing and pasture lands : Seeding land ; varieties of grass ; what is grass ; what kinds arc rgcommcuded for culUvation ; clover, its cultivation ; harvc-st-

ing seed

Sec. XLVIL— haying AND HAYING JLVCHINES : Hay caps ; stacking ; how much hay land should produce, and how much it is necessary to provide ; how to measure hay in bulk

CHAPTER X.

EOOT CKOP8 AND SUGAE CROPS.

Sec XLVIII.— potatoes, TURNIPS, BEETS, CARROTS, PARSNEPS, ONIONS : How to plant and cultivate, and how much thuy should produce ; Iiistory of the potato ; charac- ter of varieties ; importance of the crop ; what seed should be used, and how planted ; suhstitutL'S for the potato ; sweet potato culture ; turnip culture ; carrots as a crop, and sowing and cultivation ; onions as a crop, how grown, and profits 78j

Sec. XLIX.— CHINESE SUGAR-CANE, AND SORGO-SUGAR MAKING : Preparation and time of planting cano; soil and situation; harvesting; manufacturing, and yield and profits as a crop ^"'--

Sec. L.— MAPLE-SUG^VR M^VKING : Tapping trees ; spouts, buckets, and boilers ; process of manufactuj'c ; cost, yield, aud profit of maple-sugar 8C5

CHAPTER XL

FORESTS AND FENCES.

Sec. LI.— trees AND TREE PLANTING ; WOOD OR COAL FOR FUEL : What trees to phrnt, and how and where ; descriptive list of trees; value of various trees ; how to make timber durable ; how to season fuel 845

Sec. LII. — FENCES : Their cost ; kinds most economical ; laws regulating ; how to make hedges, stone walls, wire fence, and farm gates ; how to kyauize fence posts ; waste of land aiound fences ; portable fence, its use 801

CHAPTER XH.

FERTILIZATION.

Sec. LIII.— THE ART, USE, AND ECONOMY OF MAKING, SAVING, AND APPLYING MANURES AND FERTILIZING FARM CROPS : Color, fineness, and moisture of ma- nure affects its value ; nitrates, muriates, sulphates, lime, plaster, and bones, how to apply ; guano, its history and use ; muck, its value ; sea-weed and other matters ; value of salt ; special manures for various crops ; soiling to save manure ; manuring with clover ; water, its value as a fertilizer 877

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER Xm.

IRRIGATION. DRAINING. PLOWING. FARMING TOOLS.

PAQR

Sec. LIV.— irrigation AND TILE DRAINING : Value of irrigation ; its practice in Italy and otlier countries ; what lands are most benefited ; tile draining, its importance, cost, practice, and pi-ofit ; how and what land should be drained ; the mole-draining plow. . . . 904

Sec. LV.— plows AND PLOWING : History of cast-iron plows ; subsoil plows, and their use and value ; steel plows and steam plows ; other farming tools ; labor saved by using farm machinery , 917

CHAPTEE XIY.

SOUTHERN STAPLE CROPS COTTON, CANE, RICE, TOBACCO.

Sec. LVI.— mSTORY, GROWTH, AND MANUFACTURE OF COTTON : History of the cotton gin ; upland cotton ; sea island cotton ; how cotton is grown, picked, and pre- pared for market ; profit of the culture ; flax cotton 928

Sec LVn.— sugar cane CULTIVATION: Statistics of its culture in Louisiana ; yield of sugar per acre ; cost of making, and how it is made 943

Sec. LVllI. — RICE : Its cultivation, production, and preparation for market ; yield per acre ; value and profit ; statistics of rice plantations ; upland rice 948

Sec LIX. — ^TOBACCO : Its history, cultivation, production, and profits ; exports and con- sumption of tobacco ; eifect of cultivation upon the soil ; its culture in New York and Connecticut ; rules for cultivation, curing, and packing 953

Sec. LX.— CULTIVATION OF HEMP, FLAX, AND OTHER FIBROUS PLANT'S : Hemp ; soil and climate ; how it is sown, harvested, and yield per acre ; cost and profit ; effect upon the soil ; flax cultivation ; how to prepare the soil, sow the seed, and quantity per acre 965

CHAPTER XY.

GLEANINGS OF THE FIELD.

Sec LXL— MISCELLANEOUS TTEMS OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE TO FARMERS : This last chapter embraces many things not classed under other titles, such as temperature for seeds to germinate and grow ; nutriment in food substances ; weights and measure of grain ; measuring land ; proverbs and maxims for young and old farmers, farmers' wives and children ; maxims of health ; things to be thought about ; how to dress skins, fix pumps, mend pipes, and prognosticate the weather ; farmers' clubs ; farm laborers ; farm accounts ; farm economy, and finis 971-1010

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

Plait. I. — Likeness of the Author - Frontispiece.

Platk II.— Frontispiece of Chap. I. , illustratrating the subject of Domestic Animals Page Vi

Plate in. — Frontispiece of Sec. III. This Plate Is intended to answer the question, " What

is a ETOod Cow ?" It also exhibits different breeds of Cattle 31

Platk IV. — Different Breeds of Cattle — Durham, Devon, Hereford, .\yrs!iire, Dutcli, and AI-

demey Bulls and Cows H

Plate V. — The Milk Jlirror, showing how to select a good Cow, and form of Teetli at dif- ferent Ages 48

Plate VI. — Breeds of Sheep and Swine 81 and 10

1'i.ATi; VII. — Frontispiece of Sec. VIII. — Portraits of celebrated Horses, and Illustrations of

different Breeds 07

Pirates VIII. and IX. — Illustrations of the Teeth of Horses at all Ages, showing how to

judge the Age from One to Eighteen Years lOG

Plate X. — Frontispiece to Poultry, Sec. IX 123

Plate XI. — Turlteys, Ducks, Oeese, Swans, and Pea Fowls 140

Plate XII. The Bee-Keeper at his Work 15"

Plate XIII. — ^Tlic Farmery of Fanner Snug and Farmer Slack— Frontispiece of Chap. III. . 275

Platk XIV.^Frontispiece of the Garden and its Fruits, Chap. V 461

Plate XV. — Frontispiece to the Flower Garden, Sec. XXXI 500

Plate X.V1. — Frontispiece to the Orcliard, Cluap. VL — A Dessert fit for a Fiirmer — .V Rural

Scene and rich collection of Fruit 555

Pl.\te XVII. — Frontispiece to Chap. VIII.— Ccrealia, representing Insects injurious to Wheat ;

also Grapevine Pests 007

Plate XVIII. — Frontispiece to Sec. XLV. — Illustrations of Insects wliicli are injurious to

Farmers, and others which are l>cncficial 709

Plate XIX. — Frontispiece to Chap. IX. — The Grasses 748

Plate XX. — Frontispiece to Chup. XIV. — The Cotton Plant and Cotton Field- Gathering

the Crop 928

Plate XXI.— Insects injurious to Cotton and Corn 912

Plate XXII. — Frontispiece of Sec. LIX. — Tobacco in all stages of Growth .and Curing for

Market 953

PLATE II.

(Page 13.)

Every American farmer will look upon this picture with pride. It is a fitting illusti'ation of a chapter upon Domestic Animals. It contains representatives of a well-stocked farm, assembled in the farm-yard on the south side of one of the farmery buildings in one of the sunny days of spring, which are so well calculated to make such a collection of well-fed animals feel, as these look, full of gladness. There is no danger that such liogs as these will destroy young lambs and poultry. Here we sec the sheep and lambs, goats and kids — goats that yield valuable fleeces, which are described in this chapter — the work-horses and brood-mare and colt — the mules and their progenitor, who is in an attitude of war Avith a well-fed heifer that is absorbed in admiration of the peacocks on the roof of the poultry-house. How surlily the bull looks upon the white- faced cow, which is deeply interested in contemplating the two hens that the cock has just called to enjoy a few grains of corn ! By tlie earnest looking of one cow and two horses, we judge that they see their good friend and master approaching. Geese, ducks, turkeys, rabbits, and pigeons, and a boat on the water, enhven the scene, which, altogether, is one of tranquil beauty. It is a scene to con- template and admire. It teaches a lesson. ' It will stimulate many a young man to a determination to become the owner of such a' one, or something equally worthy of the artist who desires to represent American farm life. It will stimulate all, we hope, who look upon this pictorial index of this chapter to read it carefully.

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FACTS FOR FARMERS.

CHAPTER I.

DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

SECTION. I— INTllODUCTION TO FiVCTS ABOUT STOCK.

HE very foundation of all farm improvement is the

domestic animals which consume the coarse products

of the farm, such as are not fit for human food, or

grown ill greater abundance than is needed for

that purpose, which, being so fed, are converted

into milk, butter, cheese, beef, pork, mutton, wool,

leather, and the many other valuable animal products.

But above all are animals valuable to the farmer, because

they convert the coarse products of the farm into manure,

without which the owner can not produce food for his own

sustenance.

Viewing, then, as I do, successful farming as based upon stock, it seems to me very fitting that I should make the treatise of it the leading chapter of the volume. And as swine are more univereally kept by all classes of Americans, and the flesh more universally used every week in the year, it will be very proper to make this branch of farm-stock the leading subject.

I am not going to give learned dissertations upon stock-breeding, nor, in fact, long essays upon this or any other subject, but such little fugitive facts as come to hand, in short paragraphs, consecutively numbered for reference, with black-letter titles to each subject, to attract attention, and so arranged that facts may be gathered at a glance, and valuable information obtained during leisure moments which might otherwise be lost.

Many of the statements given are not only for the purpose of giving interesting information — such, for instance, as the weights of the largest animals ever slaughtered — but as an incentive to others to try to produce the like. It is not to be expected that a man who never saw a bullock of over 12 cwt. should attempt to make one of 36 cwt. ; nor will lie be likely to make the attempt before he learns the important fact, that the particular breed which he has kept all his life never attain tliat weight.

It is for the purpose of inciting improvement that I give some statistics

Li brary ^N' estate College

14 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Coap. I.

of the New York livestock market, which I have been familiar with for many years. Farmers slioiild knuw that there is a certain market for all the meat-giving animals they can produce, and what they realize, as well as what varieties sell best.

I have purposely adopted a dcsnltory method, because I tliiuk it will be more satisfactory to my readers, whom I do not expect to read the work in consecutive order, and because I find it more convenient to pick up the fugitive facts and jot them down in a sort of mosaic-work, something as nature does its autumn tints, which are now glowing before my window in the full eifulgence of an October sun.

And here, too, as I look abroad upon my neighbors' fields, and at their cattle gnawing the short pasture, and running after every chance apple dropping from the trees, and then stretcliing up their necks, looking for more, and browsing off the lower limbs of tlic trees, I am forcibly reminded that this is not a profitable method of keeping larm-stock. Day by day the milch cows fail to give the supply that good pasture will always give in this good butter-making month of October ; and day by day the flesh of all the animals is wasting, so that, by-and-by, when the cold and storms of November force their owner to bring them into winter quarters, they are not in such a condition that he may carry thcui economically through. There is a great error in farming, that the scene before me forcibly reminds me of — it is the error of keeping any kind of iarm-stoek upon short pasture, and most jjarticularly in autumn, so that they come to winter quarters falling off in flesh, rather than gaining, which is tlio condition tliat all animals should be in when brought from the pasture to the stable or feeding lot.

Some of the farmers of the Eastern States of the kind just alluded to, who keep their stock upon the shortest possible pasture, and consequently generally have scrubby animals, and always meet with great difficulty in wintering those, would learn a useful lesson if they would visit the blue- grass pastures of Kentucky, and see in what luxuriant feed the sleek Durhams of that region are kept. They would there learn one of the secrets of value of that breed, and why they attain at three years old a size and weight of beef never equaled at six years old by tlie scrub breed common in Virginia and in the liilly regions of Oliio and Indiana, which are sometimes designated in the New York market as " pony cattle," or " old stjdc," and averaging, when fat, about six hundred pounds in the beef. A similar scrub breed is known in Kentucky as " mountain cattle,'' and the same style is very common in North Carolina, Georgia, and other Southern States, wlicrc I liave often seen full grown steers, and fat, killed ibr beef at four years old, that would not average four liundred pounds of beef. These cattle were treated, too, all their lives, just like too many of the same class in all the New England and Middle States — like those now before me, eking out their existence upon the scanty herbage of autumn, in a closely-cropped summer pasture, and never fed with forage prepared for winter, until the owner is driven to it by an early winter storm.

Sec. 1.] CATTLE OX A MISSISSIPPI STEAMBOAT. 15

Such is not the right way to keep stock ; but so long as men will keep it thus, it is not of much advantage to try to improve the breed.

Tliere is a great want of information, not only upon the subject of improvements in the kinds of stock, but in the modes of keej^ing it. It is not my intention, in this chapter upon domestic animals, to attempt to give all this information, but only a few brief hints, which may lead to reflection and improvement.

Above all things that will tend to improvement, are annual visits to great cattle-shows, where the varieties in the bi'eeds of cattle may be studied, and judged as to which -would be the most profitable, or whether either would be more so than the old-style breed at home.

It would be of great importance, too, to all farmers to travel more. How strange it would seem, at first sight, to a Yankee farmer, who had occupied a forty-acre farm all his life, to see a thousand hogs, and half as many bullocks, all turned into a grand-prairie corn-field, of a size large enough to cover his entire farm and that of twenty or thirty of his ueighboi-s! His first exclamation would probably be, " Oh, what a waste !"• His subsequent opinion would be about like this : " "Well, after all, I begin to believe that is not so bad a way of harvesting corn as I thought it was."

And this is not the only curious thing that he might see in relation to farm-stock in traveling through the West. He would see the same bad management as at home, about bringing the stock into winter quarters, for they are too often allowed to run in a corn-field, after the grain has all been harvested, living upon the dry stalks until after tlie first snows of winter. He might also see some very amusing, as well as instructive things, in connection with cattle.

Shipping cattle o?i a Mississippi stcamhoat, as I once witnessed, afibrded infinite amusement; and I am disposed to giv^e a photograph of it, before I take up the more practical details of farm-stock.

Engagements for boats to stop and take cattle on board at various landings are frequently made before leaving port, and it often happens that the boat reaches these points in the night ; and tlien a scene occurs which might employ a more graphic pen than mine to describe, or which would have been a fit subject for Hogarth to paint.

I will try to give my readers some idea of such a scene, although one so common on the Mississippi it rarely meets a passing notice ; yet it is full of interest.

The steamer left St. Louis about sundown of a dark day, during the latter part of which the rain came down in torrents, corresponding to tlie size of the great river they were destined to fill. Of course mud was a component part of all the little tributary streams ; but it did not discolor the great river — that is always muddy.

At ten o'clock we saw a light on the right bank, and run in for it. Tliougli the rain had ceased, the night was dark — one which gave tlie pilot but little chance to see any but the most prominent landmarks.

16 DOMESTIC AKIMALS. [Chap. I.

"Whose place is this?" sung out tlie captain, wlien he had approached as near the light as lie thought safe — for in time of "a fresh," the master of a boat always approaches shore with great care.

" Why, dis is my massa's place ; what boat dat ? If you is de Heniy Clay, den dis nigger mighty glad, 'cause, gorra, cap'en, hab been watching all dis two free nights for de old Clay."

" Have you got your cattle there ?"

"All in do lot— gorra brcss you, den you is de Henry Clay, sure — right here by do light."

" Is the water good in shore ?"

" Why, spec him is good for the steamboat, but not very good to drink."

" IIow deep is it near the bank ?"

" Oil, Lord, massa, dat mor'n dis nigger knows for sartin, 'cause him mighty deep."

"That will do. Forward there. Get your lines ready. Light them torches — let's see where we are. Call all hands ; hero is a hundred head of cattle to be got aboard."

In a few minutes the lights flashed a bright glare over the boat and shore, bringing to view a scene worth a long journey to behold. The torches are composed of " light wood," which is the concentrated pitch of old pine trees, of the long-leaf variety — the richest of all the family in turpentine. This wood is split in small pieces and put in an iron frame, with a staft" not unlike the common hod used to carry mortar, so it can be carried about or stuck in the ground, where by a little replenishing it will burn for hours, giving a light unequaled by any other portable contiivance I ever saw. In the present case, it disclosed more mud than anything else. The whole bank was alluvial claj' loam. The face was steep, and sixty or eighty feet high. The boat, made fast to stakes driven into the soft earth, lay within twenty feet of the shore, between which and the guards was a gangway made of long planks lashed together, about six or eiglit feet wide, without side-railing, or anything to prevent springing down in the center. The cattle were in a yard on the top of the bank, where, around the watch- lire, huddled about a dozen sleeiiy negroes, amongst which the anxious face of massa soon made its appeiirance, having been awakened at his house, two miles distant, by the tremendous noise wliicli is made by one of these river steamers, by the pulls of her high-pressure engine.

" Ilalloo, Captain Smith, is that you ? I might have known it, though, for no other fool would come hero in the night for such a job as this. What are you going to do — hold on till morning T'

"Hold the !"

"Well, I might just as well as hold you. I do believe, if the Clay's engine should break going up stream, the boat would not stop — there is steam enough in the captain to keep her going."

Evidently pleased with this compliment, he jumped ashore, with that most encouraging of all words, " Come, boys," and floundered up the muddy

Sso. 1.] HANDLING A AVILD STEER. 17

road, to greet his planter friend with one of those hearty shakos of the hand which alone is equal to a whole volume on the man's character.

"Well, captain, you see how it is. I am all ready ; the cattle are here, wet, wild, and muddy, and the bank awful. I couldn't help it. It would I'aiu, and the river is on the fall. I doubt whether your men can stand on the slippery bank. My boys will take down some of the gentle ones, but Lord help you M'ith two or three ; we had to bring them in with the dogs."

" So much the better, then, tliat the road is wet — they will slide tlie easier. Hopes and men will bring them down ; don't you fret, colonel."

" Well, well, I'll leave it to you ; I'll risk the cattle, if you will your neeks. Better wait for daylight, thougii — what say?"

" Never ! what should I do with that surplus steam you say I carry ? Wait — no ; I intend to have them all aboard, and win half of them playing poker with you before morning; and at daylight 1 am going to take in Tom Kilgc'-e's, at Rocky Landing. So bear a hand, boys. Stir up your lights, and rouse 'em out, one at a time, and often."

In a few minutes tliere was a line of men and bullocks from the top of the bank to the boat. The first dozen or two came down very orderly to the end of the gangway, where, if they hesitated, a rope was tlirown over so as to encircle them behind, and two or three stout fellows at each end gave them material aid about coming on board. Tiie owner said Ave should see fun directly, but not caring to participate in it personally, he took care to make himself one of the spectators, in a safe, comlbrtable position on board the boat. Upward of half were brought down without giving us a taste of the promised amusement, though the whole scene was exceedingly interesting.

At length they got hold of one of the animals, which the colonel said was wilder than forty deer, and vicious as an old buck in running time ; and then there was fun. lie was a great, long-legged, five-year-old steer, of the mouse color, long taper-horned Spanisli cattle, who had never before felt the weiglit and strength of a man's hand upon his heretofore unrestrained wild-woods liberty. Round and round the yard he went, carrying or dragging through the mud as many negroes, sailors, and firemen as could find horn, car, nose, or tail to hold to. Finally they got a rope round his horns and drew liini up to a stake at the edge of the bank, to wait till others were caught to lead down first, thitdving that he would better follow than take the front rank. He did follow. When about a dozen or fifteen head were on the way down, the wild one was cast off from his moorings and led np to the edge of the bauk„ wlien just at that moment the engineer blowed off steam, at wliich the frightened animal leaped forward on to the slippery path, Inst his foothold, and down be went against the ne.xt, and the next, and so on ; like a row of bricks, one tumbled or slid against another, upsetting men and beast, till the whole came down like an avalanche upon the end of the platform with such force that the strain upon the mooring line of the bow drew out the stake, when the strong current almost instantly swung her off shore so far, before the men could get hold of the line and make fast again, that the platform

18 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.

dropped off into the water, and with it eight or ten men and steei-s, among which was the one that caused all the mischief. I must say the fun was not 80 great as the fright, for a minute, as it did not take much longer to finish off the greatest feat of " slidhig down hill" which I have witnessed since tlie halcyon days of hand-sleds and boyhood upon the snow-clad, wintry hills of my native land. Tiiat all were got out safe was owing to the instant thought and action of the mate, who sprang ashore with a polo which he placed in the wheel, so as to prevent the cattle from floating down past the stern, where it would have been impossible for them to get up the soft, tilijjliery bank. As it was, some of them were in the water over an hour; the catamount, as the colonel called him, being purposely left until the last, and severely threatened with being towed to New Orleans. But when he was at length taken out, tliere was not a more docile animal in the herd ; he had been completely subdued. The whole affair, though fraught with danger at first, afforded all hands a scene of most uproarious mirth. Even at the time when it looked as though half a score of men might be killed in the grand tumble, it was almost impossible to avoid laughing, the whole thing was so extremely ludicrous.

One big negro fellow, finding himself hard pressed b}' tlie bullock he was leading and half a dozen more behind him, either for sport or to save his shins, jumped upon the animal's back and came down witli a surge into the water ; but he never let go till he had him safe ashore again, where he met some of the most hearty, though rude congratulations of his companions, for his skillful feat of horsenuinship on an ox.

Finally, in spite of mud and peril, the grand entertainment of shipping cattle on the Mississippi was concluded, and the boat was ofl' before daylight for the next landing, where the operation was to be repeated. Owing to better ground and a difterent plan adopted, this was not quite so entertaining. The cattle were yarded in a lo:ig, narrow pen, M'hich came near the shore. A rope being passed over the horns of the forwartl steer, with the other end through a snatch-block on the boat, a dozen or fifteen men would lay hold of it, while two men by the tail to steer, and one on each side to keep him on the gangway, would have the fellow out of the pen and eliding up the planks before he knew what he was bellowing for.

As in all cases where science and skill direct human efforts, the labor was lessened and business expedited.

And so in all cases where science and skill are exercised in regard to all kinds of domestic animals, success may be looked for.

And now, after this little incidental digression from the main intent of this chapter, in the exhibition of a life-like scene on the Mississippi, we will begin to arrange our facts in order and shape for useful reference, always aiming more at the practical than ornamental.

As we shall arrange each subject under its separate and proper head, we will begin the chapter upon domestic animals with that kind in most universal use.

Sec. 2.]

SWINE.

19

SECTION IL-SWINE.

eeding Pigs and Faiting Pork. — Next to procuring a good breed of swine — that is, a breed suitable to the purposes for which it is required — the best way to feed the stock liogs, and the cheapest and best way to fatten them, is the most important master for a farmer to consider. No man can say, " My breed is the best of all," unless he specifies for wliat purpose it is best for. A good grazing breed would be best for some situations ; quite the contrary for some others. Tiie Berkshire, Essex, and Suffolk have each been denomi- nated " the gentleman's jjig," because well fitted for keeping up in close pens, one or two to a family ; while a much larger breed is required bj'' the great corn-growere of the "West. And this brings us to the next most important question. 3. Corn and Pork— Uow much Pork will a Bnsliel of torn make?— This is one of the most important questions that can be asked by every man who raises a bushel of corn or feeds one to a liog. Yet it is a question that not one in ten can answer. To see the ignorance of mankind upon subjects of most importance to them, makes us ready to exclaim, Does anybody know anything about anything? In conversation with many farmers, we have not yet found a man who could say how much corn it i-equired to make a hundred pounds of pork, and consequently could not fix upon any relative price of one or the other, at which it would be profitable to feed corn to hogs. In some experiments made by Henry L. Ellsworth, at Lafayette, Ind., in warm weather, with thrifty young porkers in a pen, fed with corn in the ear, if we remember aright, he gained 12 lbs. of pork per bushel of corn. Samuel II. Clay, of Kentucky, gained 17^ lbs. per bushel, feeding the corn in the form of cooked meal. As a general thing, we should like to know if corn, fed as it usually is in the "West, averages six pounds of pork to the bushel of shelled corn.

We have received several answers to this question, but they only proxi- mately settle the point. Leroy Buckingham, of Cadiz, Cattaraugus Co., N. Y., says, a pig that weighed 52 lbs. when commenced with, fed on the spare milk from one cow and 800 lbs. of raw coin-meal, weighed 364 lbs. (live or dead not stated) when killed at seven and a half months old. He thinks each bushel of corn made about 20 lbs. of pork.

The two following letters we print entire, and commend them to the careful attention of all farmers, although they do not contain all that is necessary to be known upon the subject :

20 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. 1.

"Glenn's Falls, N. Y., Oct. 23, 1858.

"Sir: You think it important that farmers should know how much pork a harrol of corn will make. It is an important question, and I am sorry to say I think there are ten lawyei's and mechanics to one farmer that can answer the (question correctly. I once made a very accurate exj^eriment in Kew York; the first day of September I weighed into the pen two hogs, a year and a lialf old, and three pigs, six months old. I measured old corn accurately, and had it ground. At night I wet with boiling water (to a consistency that would run freely) meal sufficient for the next day's feed. The hogs had no slo])s from the house — nothing but the meal and water. I killed them the first of December, deducted five cents per pound for what they weighed the fii-st of September, and found, at six cents per pound for the pork, they had paid ninety-eight cents per bushel for the eoni, which would give about sixteen and one third pounds of j)()rk to the bushel. One year gincc I fatted fifteen old liogs and tliirty five pigs on India wheat ai;d potatoes. I measured the feed accurately, steamed the potatoes, and mixed the meal in while hot, twelve hours before feeding. At five cents per ]>oi:i,d for the ]>ork, they paid firty-two cents per bushel for the India wheal, and fifteen cents for the potatoes. Of course the relative value of the wheat and potatoes is guessed at in that experiment. I "worked" tlie hogs in ihe manure business, carting in muck, weeds, etc. I got 15 cords of manure although less pork' — I suppose for the working the hogs. I would like much to know if any one (especially in the Western States) has made tlic exj>eri- ment of turning hogs into the corn-field, with free access to watei', and let them help themselves.

"If any otiier class of business 7ncn knew as few facts in rcgai'd to their business as farmers do, they would all fail every year. New Mausu."

A. G. Perry, of Newark (State not named), weighed a thrifty pig, five nionlhs old, 15011)s., and then fed it 50 lbs. corn meal, mixed with hot water, thin enough to answer ibr victuals and driidv. This was eaten in six and a half days, and the gain was 18 lbs.

A correspoiulent writes from Norlh Cliatham, Columbia Co., N. Y. : "Tlie 2-ith of August I put up a sow to fatten — a large proportion Suffolk — lier weight, 235 lbs. Price on foot, 4 cents per pound. For food from August 24th to October 4th, gave her 309 lbs. rye bran. Rye bran is Avorlh here $1 12| per 100 lbs. October 4th her weight was 295 lbs., making CO lbs. increase from the bran. From October 4th until November 17th I fed her 10 bushels, by weight 560 lbs., of marketable corn. Killed her Nov. 17tli. Her live weight, just before killing, was 413 His. Increase from the 10 bushels corn (or 5(50 lbs.), being 118 lbs. pork — it taking a fraction more than A\ lbs. corn for 1 11). pork — and is a fraction less than 12 lbs. ]>ork fi-om 1 bushel of corn, making the increase per day a little less than 23 lbs. The present ])rice of corn here is 70 cents jier busliel, and the pork 7 cents per pound, being barely a paying business."

Ssa 2.]

SWINE— PROFIT OF FEEDING.

21

J. J. Carter, of Ilornville, Chester Co., Pa., says that B. P. Kirk kept a debt and credit account with his pig. He fed 49^'j bushels of corn, at GO cents a bushel, and added the tirst cost of the pig, at two months old, $5, making a total of $31 46. At 17 months old the animal weighed 649 lbs., and sold for 71 cents a pound, making §18 67, giving a profit of $11 21. A little bran was fed, but that was reduced to the equivalent of corn, and coimted as above. The breed of hogs common in Chester County is one of the best in the world. The hogs arc of a white color, medium-sized, easily tatted to weigh 300 to 100 lbs. at 10 to 15 months old, and have small bones, fine-grained flesh, large hams, well marbled, and large leaves of kidney fat. It is a distinct American breed, and one of the best for farmers who desire to graze their hogs in part, and then fatten them easil}^ upon honsa-slops, apples, potatoes, and coarse grain. Even for large fnrmers, and for making pork upon a large scale, there are not many, if any, breeds of swine iu this country superior to that known as "Westchester, or Chester County (Pa.) hogs. And as I consider it an important fact that farmers should know where to get a real good breed without paying fancy i^rices, I am glad of the ojiportunity to make this breed better known.

D. C. Nye, of Lexington, Mass., iu reply to an inquirer in the Genesee Farmer^ writes that —

"The Chester County hogs are distinguished for their early maturity, great facility for fattening, and are very quiet and docile. They are well covered with bristles, and, unlike the Suft'olks, can endure the heat and cold. The Chesters will jirobably make as much pork (and of a sujierior quality) on a given amount of food as any other breed — some of them, when well fed, having attained the weight of six or seven hundred pounds."

Another correspondent of the same pajier says, in addition, that the thorough-bred Chester hogs are always white, and that "they are peculiar in being fit for slaughtering at any time."

But to proceed with the subject of feeding hogs. The second letter is very much to the point. It says :

*' In answer to your question, ' How much pork will a bushel of corn make?' I send you the result of two experiments, made some years ago, while occupying a farm in the northern part of Chester County, Pa.

" My first experiment was with five very ordinary pigs that I bought of a neighbor; weighed, October, 1851, 219 lbs ; fed on corn and cob meal, boiled into mush, of which they consumed in 30 days 279 lbs., and gained 87 lbs. live weight

"In the next 32 days tliey consumed 375|lbs., and gained 75 lbs. live weight, making a gain of 157 lbs. in 62 days, having consumed 651| lbs. of corn and cob meal, which is equal to about 9i bushels pure meal; or one bushel pure meal cooked made 16.8 lbs. live weight.

"My second experiment was with a lot of five very superior pigs, of the Chester breed; they weighed, Feb. 7, 1S53, COoIbs; consumed in 9 days

DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.

252 lbs. corn and cob meal, scalded, and gained 78 lbs. In the next £ days they consumed 1:^5 lbs. whole corn, boiled, and 128 lbs. of corn-cob meal, scalded, and gained 57 lbs.

"In the next t) days they consnmed 278 lbs. corn-cob meal, scalded, and gaisied 70 lbs., making a gain in 27 days of 205 lbs. on a consumption of C5Slbs. corn-cob meal, and 125 lbs. wliole corn. Assuming that 70 lbs. of the cob-mcal contains 5G lbs., or one bushel jinre meal, ■we have 9| busliels of pure meal and 2} bushels whole corn, making a consumption of 11 J bushels nearly, and a gain of 205 lbs. flesh; or 5Glbs. of pure meal, scalded, made 17.41 lbs. of live weight.

"The above surprising gain for food consumed was the result of very careful feeding, clean and warm bedding, and a tight house.

" RicHAKD TuATCHEE, Darby, Pa."

Thomas Iloag, of Somhanock, N. Y., lias sent us a detailed statement of the feeding of ten pigs, out of a litter of twelve from a native-breed yearling sow, taken from her at seven weeks old, and fed till slaughtered, at forty weeks old, with the following substances, with estimates of expense added :

Pasture $3 00

Wood used in boiling food 2 00

Extras 2 CO

Value of pigs at seven weeks old 80 00

2121 bushels of com, at 75 cents $1.59 38

G;! bushels of oats, at 45 cents 28 35

r^iiil for crrinding 14 79

1:! busliels of small potatoes, 12i cents. 1 63

(i loads of pumpkins, at $1 6 00

20a lbs. of carrots 1 00 Total $2-18 15

These hogs weighed, dressed, 4,066 pounds, and sold,

(in 1853), at Lansingburg, N. Y., at $7 50 per cwt $304 95

Kough fat, 175 lbs •. 17 50

Total $322 45

Total cost 248 15

Balance S74 30

This is the amount of profit, or, rather, pay for labor, and tli,e spare milk of four ordinary cows fed to tlieni, and not estimated as above. At six cents a pound the result would have been

4,000 llw., at G cents $243 90

Eough fat 17 60

Total $261 46

Cost 248 15

Profit $13 31

This certainly docs not give a very flattering picture of the probable profits

of pork-making in this section of the country, where every kind of feed is

salable at high prices.

Other letters were subsequently received, from one of which we gather

the following information : Wm. Renick, of Circleville, Ohio, a large farmer,

and long engaged in the raising of cattle and hogs, writes more extensively

than we can tiiul I'oom tor. Mr. Renick thinks that farmers are not ignorant

of the fact " Imw luiu-h ])ork v»-ill a bushel of corn make," and says:

Seo. 2.] SWINE— GAIN IN FEEDING. 23

" Probably nine tenths of our best practical farmers could, without lie?ita tiou, give you an approximate answer in general terms."

This is exactly what we supposed, and that they would give nothing but an approximate answer in general terms, because there is a general lack of positive information upon this and many otlier important matters connected with the farming interest. Mr. Renick gives the gain upon five liogs fed by himself in the common rough method of the West — tliat is, turned into the corn-field, 200 head together. Three of these hogs weighed, at seven months old, liOlbs. each, and two older ones weighed 125 lbs. each. After feeding 120 days, the three weighed 280 lbs. net average, and the two 185 lbs.

" Now, say that hogs on an average will eat 20 bushels of corn per hundred head per day for the first 60 days, 16 bushels for the next 30 days, and 12 bushels per hundred head per day for the last 30 days, and we have 21 bushels per head for the whole time of 120 days (though this is under rather than over the mark), and we have a production in the case of the three hogs of 101 lbs. of gross pork for a bushel of corn, and but a small fraction over 5 lbs. per bushel for the two hogs."

Now, this is exactly in jiroof of what we originally stated. It is all guess- work. Mr. Renick further says :

"The large feeders of hogs and cattle are oftentimes greatly mistaken in their calculations in regard to the quantity of stock their corn will feed, sometimes largely overrunning, and again falling largely short of their calculations."

Tills is not to be wondered at, when it is considered that no one pretends to have any settled rule of action, but buys as many leau cattle or hogs as he guesses he can fatten. Mr. Renick thinks the most common answer to the question M"ould be something like this :

"That hogs fed in the ordinary way will gain from one pound to one and a half pounds per day, and tliey will consume some twenty bushels or more of corn in three and a half or four months ; that it all depends upon the quality of the hogs, quality of the corn, weather, and other contingencies."

The gain varies from five to twelve pounds gross per bushel. So he says: " AVe will compromise the matter by guessing that, all things favorable, one bushel of corn, fed in the ordinary way, will make seven pounds gross weight." It is, after all, then, nothing but guessing. And we guess that feeding corn, where it is worth a dollar a bushel, as it frequently is in and about New York, won't pay while dressed hogs are sold from the hooks, as they gener- ally are, at seven or. eight cents a pound, and the average price of live hogs is less than six cents a pound. With our arithmetic we can not figure up any profit for a farmer hereabouts to keep a single hog more than he wants to eat up the milk and house-slops, and a little waste grain ; and probably that could be more profitably fed to poultry.

The greatest advantage from feeding grain to make pork in all the New England States must be looked for more in the manure than in the meat. Where manure must be purchased, it may be profitable to purchase corn-

24 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Ciiap. I.

meal to convert into manure through the pig-pen manufactory. The next jiaragrapli is to the point in this connection, of feeding pigs to make manure. 4. Working Pigs. — "We once recommended farmers to make their pigs working animals. To this a writer in an agricultural paper objected ; l)c- cause, as he alleges, the same amount of food consumed by an idle Img will- nuike 12 pounds of jiork as easily as it will make S pounds if the animal is allowed to exercise his natural propensity to root. In this we entirely agree, and iiavc often contended that when a Iiog is shut up to fatten, if lie was coiiiined in a slip so narrow that he could not turn round, having one side of his narrow prison nuide so as to be moved out as he increased in bulk, lie v.otild fatten faster than in any other position. Kow, will the writer, who thinks that we differ from him in opinion, read over again the article that ho criticises, and see that it is the pig-pen, and not the fatting-hog pen, that we were talking about. Our facts are not intended to be elaborated into proofs and arguments for farmers, but rather as texts for thinking men to think over and reason upon with themselves and neighbors. Our opinion is, tiiat all the swine family should be kept imprisoned, if not in close pens, certainly in strongly fenced lots ; and in all the Eastern States, where manure is so valuable, it is very doubtful wliether a farmer can ali'ord to let any of the family out of the pen — which, as we before hinted, should be a great manure manufactory — except, perhaps, for a sliort season to eat clover, peas, or glean a stnbble-lield. If there is a greater neighborhood nuisance tlian hogs in the highway, we have j'ct to liud it out; and as we would always keep "Mr. Pig" in tlie pen, we recommended to make him woi-k in the manuiactory, furnishing a part of the mateiials to be worked, and tlie farmer the remainder. In his immediate preparation for death we don't care how idly he spends the last of his days. As long as farmere will pei-sist in making tlie flesh of swine their leading article of food, we shall contend that the flesh of an animal that has worked liis way up to a mature age, and is then fattened ready for slaughter, Avill make more healthy food than tlie oily fatness of one always kept in a state of obcsitj- and idleness from his birth to death. It is this great physiological fact that causes the flesh of the wild hog to be sought after and eaten with gusto. "We fully agree with the orthodoxy of E. M. Brewster, a model farmer of Griswold, Conn., who says if he was to fatten a half-dozen liogs upon a flat rock, he would be sure to have two rings in each nose. The latitude that we desire our readei-s to give to our suggestions is just this : to make a distinction between working and fattening animals, and make tlie pig a useful one.

" Keeping pigs eighteen months to fatten tlieni the last tliroc is not a paying business. Feed a decent pig loell from weaning until eight months old, and you M'ill get 250 lbs. to 300 lbs. of pork, and you do not usually get 50 lbs. more for those ten months older. There can be no question but an animal can consume much more to produce in eighteen months about the same quantity of meat which is made by another in half that length of feeding. If the object of raising a hog is to malce pork, that end should be

N. C. State College

Seo. 2.] COOKING FOOD FOR SWINE. 25

kept steadily in view — his swiueship should see it, and cat for it." This is our view exactly. Winter none but autumn pigs, keep tliein in pens, and always growing. "To kesp a pig growing, one must keep liiin ealing, and eating about all the lime. To do this, there is nothing, like ' change and variety' — now a little corn, then a little milk, a few boiled potatoes, a few raw a'pples — now a pudding, then a dish of greens — anything to keep them eating and stuffing when awake, even if it does rer^uire a little extra atteu- tion."

5. Cooking Food for Swinei — Circumstances must govern the feeder. If corn is worth but twenty-live cents per bushel, it is plain that it will not pay to expend much money either for cooking or crushing it ; bnt where food is iiigh, a small c[uantity saved pays for considerable labor, etc. It will hardly pay to expend dear labor upon cooking cheap roots to make low-priced poik. It has been proved that crushed barley, soaked in cold water 4G hours, gave more increase of weight to sheep than when not soaked ; but crushed malt did not. The figures are: Four sheep in 10 weeks ate 2S01bs. of crushed barley not steeped^ and 3,867 lbs. of mangel-wurzel, and increased in live weight SI lbs.; while four sheep, with barley crushed and steeped, ate 280 lbs. and 5,321 lbs. mangel-wurzel, increasing lOlJ- lbs. Four sheep, with crushed malt, not steeped, ate in 10 M-eeks 22X5 lbs., ^"^ 3,755 lbs. mangel- wurzel, and increased 8i lbs. ; wdiile lour sheep, with malt crushed and steeped, ate 226ilbs. malt and 4,458 lbs. mangel-wurzel, and gained only 78 lbs. In the above experiment, the question is, Did the additional 20ilbs. pay the extra trouble and extra feed of roots?

An experiment in Ii-eland, lately made, proves that hogs gained more upon raw than cooked vegetables. Eight hogs were selected and divided into two lots, as evenly as could be, and put in to fatten, on the 27t!i of November. Each lot was fed regularly three times a day, having each 12 lbs. of bran and barley meal, the only diiference being that one lot had steamed )-utabagas, and ihe other pulped or rasped ruta bagas. The experi- ment was continued 39 days ; the lot having cooked food ate 408 lbs. bran, etc., and 10,920 lbs. ruta bagas, and increased 103 lbs. ; while the lot having u7icooJced food ate 468 lbs. bran, etc., and only 5,460 lbs. ruta bagas, and gained 110 lbs.

Sanniel II Clay, of Bourbon, Ky., has been experimenting in feeding several lots of hogs, changing them from raw to cooked, and from ground to unground foo J, with the following results : One bushel of dry corn made 5 lbs. 10 oz. of live pork ; one bushel of boiled corn made 14 lbs. 7oz. of pork; one bushel of ground corn, boiled, made in one instance 16 lbs. 7oz., in another nearly 18 lbs. of pork. To get the value of corn, estimate the ])ork at 8 cents a pound ; we have as the result of one bushel of dry corn, 45 cents' worth of pork ; of one bushel of boiled corn, 115 cents' worth of pork ; and of one bushel of ground corn, 136 cents' worth of pork.

6. Pig Feed— Roiled Weeds. — A widow, who was short of feed for her pig, said, in presence of her little boys, that she thought she would have to sell

2G DOMESTIC AXIMALS. [Chap. I.

it, for she had so little to feed it with, and could not afford to buy feed One of tlie little fellows promptly answered tliat he knew what would be good to feed piggy with, and of which they had plenty.

" What is it, my son ?"

" Greens, mother — boiled greens. Tiiey are good for us, why not for pigs? And we can gather tlieui, and pick up wood and boil them in llie big kettle out doors, and it will be real fun."

So it was settled that pig should cat greens — all sorts of weeds boiled ; and cat them he did, and liked them, and fatted on them, with the small addition that could be made of bran and house-slops, mixing the slops and greens together.

This is a hint worth remembering and acting upon. Tlie weeds were destroyed, the boys employed, the pig kept growing, and the boys had the satisfaction of feeling tliat they had been usefully employed.

7. Hog PastMffSi — It being generally understood that hogs live by " special providences" until it is time to fat them, there is little attention }Kiid to tl'.e most economical way of growing them up. Certain it is that a good, casv-keeping variety will make commendable ]irogro3S on grasx.

It may be safe to calculate that a good-sized, thrifty pig will gain in six months, on grass, 100 lbs. or more. If an acre of grass would keep three hogs and add 100 lbs. to the weight of each, that would be $12 for the acre of pasture, reckoning the 300 lbs. gain at four cents a pound, live weight. Instead of being forced to bite twice at a short, dirty, dried, and battered spear of June grass by the roadside before getiing any off, imagine a clean and comely Suffolk in a fresh, green pasture of clover, four inches high, filling himself with evident relish.

8. The Pig-Pen aud its VaiUf< — As a manure-maker, there is no animal ecpial to the hog, provided he is furnished with sui able facilities. The caiing and sleeping apartments of Mr. Pig shoulil always be a good frame building, with a ])lank floor and shingle roof, and it will in many places be found economical to give him an iron eating trough. His house should be cleaned out every day, and washed as often as necessary to keep it clean. All the washings and cleanings should go into an adjoining ])en, which may as well be made of fence rails, on account of cheapness and convenience of removal, into which the tenants of the hog-house nnist be invited by a little corn, scattered in every da}', to induce them to mix up a compost of tlieir own oil'al with sods, mold, leaves, weeds, and all sorts of trasli. This pen should be equal to ten feet square for every two hogs, and so long as it is worked every daj^ it will not much injure by exposure to the weather; but it should afterward be covered, and it should always have stuff enough i)ut in it to keep the hogs from getting into a very muddy condition. If you have not mold enough to entirely absorb the ammonia, you must use plaster or charcoal dust. It must be kept sweet, or you will lose much of its value ; and whore manure is valnalile. if yon neglect to use your swine for the purpose of increasing it, you will lose about all the profit of making your

Sko. 2.] SWIKE— FEEDING TIIE^ UONEY. 27

own pork. There is another Avay in which you can make the pig-pen valuable. If you have a spot of ground that you want to euricli and work deeply and thoroughly for fruit-trees or for garden vegetables, plant it with Jerusalem artichokes, and tlieu ya:-d your hogs upon ir, taking care to give them room enougli, so as not to necessitate tliem to make a quagmire. Ao-ain, you may use these animals to advantage if you have a piece of grass laud infested with grubs. Fence off a piece, and shut your swine in upon it for a few days without feed, and if they leave a sod unturned or grub uneaten it will be a wonder. It is the best preparation of such a spot for a hoed crop, or for sowing again in grass, that can be given. There is no good reason why the pig should be always kept in idleness or miscliief. Let him be trained to be useful in his life as well as at his death.

9. Ilay Seed for HogSi — \con-esY>ondijntoi the Coimf/'t/ Genile?nan vfvltas: In addition to the grain and meal given to growing hogs in the sty, they should have a daily allowance of green clover, or in winter, when this is not available, a liberal allowance of hay-seed from the barn, mixed with their slop, which they will eat with avidity. He knows of no mode by which so great an amount of growth and weight can be induced, with equal cost of food, in the winter season, as by this liaying system.

10. Cinders for Pigs.— J. J. Meelii, of Tiptreo Hall, England, says, in publishing his experience in fattening swine, that among other things, he has learned the fact " that pigs are very fond of coal-aslies or cinders, and that you can hardly fat pigs properly on boarded floors witliout giving tliem a moderate supply daily, or occasionally." lie says : " In the absence of coal-ashes, burned clay or brick-dust is a good substitute. If you do not supply ashes, they will gnaw or eat the brick walls of their sheds. I leave to science to explain the cause of this want. It is notorious that coal- dealers, whose pigs have access to the coals, are generally successful pig feeders. Those who find that their pigs, when shut up, do not progress favorably, will do well to try this plan. A neighbor of mine found that a score of fat pigs consume quite a basket of burned clay ashes daily. We know that there is an abundance of alkali in ashes."

11. Parched f orn and Honey for Hogs. — A correspondent of the IlujJiland Democrat, published at Peekskili, N. Y., furnishes that paper with the fol- lowing communication :

A few years ago I chanced in Albany to meet a farmer who is noted for raising unusually heavy hogs. The year before he had brought to market one tliat weighed over 700 lbs., and said that year that he should have one of 900 lbs., or near that mark. As tliere always ceems to be a cause for every effect, I was anxious to know the course lie pursued.

''Well," said he, ''you must first select the riglit kind of a critter. Get the right breed, and then pick out the good-natured ones from the litter ; I can't afford to feed a cross critter ; I sell them when they are pigs." " How can yoii judge ?" said I. "Well, if you watch them when they are feeding, you will find tliat some pigs are allers fighting about their victuals, and

28 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.

souse go in for eating. Tliere is as mucli difference in pigs as there is in folks."

" "Well, when you have selected the right kind of a pig, what next is important ?"

" Well, then you must have a nice place for the critters to live iu, and feed thcin on the right kind of victuals."

" What kind of food ?"

" Well, the best and cheapest kind of food I have found, when it comes time to put on the fat, is j>arc/u'd corn. I generally manage to buy a barrel ov two of Southern honey, if it is cheap, which I mix with the parched corn, f..r my fatting h.)gs."

12. Feeding Standing foru to Hots— iu the Field— or Gathered, Ground, a;!d Cooked— Comparative Advantages of these Methods. — The method often [iriicticed by large farmers of turning fattening hogs into the fields of s'aiiding corn, if properly conducted, has its advantages over that of gathering the corn and feeding it dry to the hogs in the jien.

The earlier in the season the process of fattening swine is begun the better, after the grain has reached a certain period of maturity, whether it be rye, oats, or corn, because all farm animals, and hogs in particular, will fa'.ten much faster in warm than in cold weather. And the grain between the periods of its doughy state and full maturity, or rather, before it becomes dry, is more easily digested, and assimilated, and converted into flesh and fat than when it has passed into its dry state. It is clear, then, that the sooner the hogs are turned into the field after the grains of corn are fully formed, and while yet in the milk, the more speedily they will fatten ; for if the weather be dry, the coi-n hardens very rapidlv.

A very interesting experiment in feeding hogs is detailed by Mr. James Buckingham in the Prairie Farmer. On the Ctli day of September (in ordinary seasons corn, at this date, is too far advanced to commence feeding to the best advantage), the hogs, 1S9 in number, were weighed, and footed up in the aggregate 19,600 lbs. A movable fence "was used, confining the hogs to an area sufficient to aflbrd feed for two or three days. The entire field, thus fed, contained 40 acres, with an estimated average of 40 bushels ])er acre. The consumption of this corn gave- a gain of 10,740 lbs. The hogs, when turned into the corn, cost three cents per pound, equal to §588 ; worth, when fed, four cents per ])ound, or §1,213 CO — giving a return for each acre of corn consumed of $15 G4. Adding to this $1 per acre for the improvement of the land by feeding the corn on the field, making the actual gain per acre $16 6i, equal to 40 cents per bushel, standing in the field. The whole cost of corn per acre, exclusive of interest on the land, is set down at $3 65.

By way of comparing the advantages of ground and cooked food over that which was merely ground, and that which was nnground, Mr. B. put up three hogs into separate pens. To one he fed two and a half bushels of corn in the ear, during a period of nine days, feeding all he would eat ; this

Sec. 2.] SWINE— EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING. 29

gave a gain of 19 lbs. ; anotlier ate in the same time one and three qxiarter bushels of corn, ground, and gained also 19 lbs. ; and to the third he fed one bushel of cnm, ground and hailed, which gave a gain of 22 lbs. Bj' tliis it will be s;'eii tliat one and three quarter bii^iliels of corn, when ground, will give a gain oi Ik'sh equal to two and a half busliels of iinground corn, and that one biishtd, wlien ground and cool-ed, gave a gain greater tlian either.

Tlio comparative results of these tliree methods of feeding may thus bo set down : one busliel of corn, ground and cooked, is equal to nearly tliree bushels when fed dry and unground ; and one and three quarter bushels when ground and uncooked is equal to two and a half bushels wlien fed whole.

Or it may be seated thus : one bushel of dry corn in the ear makes Si lbs. of pork, which at four cents per pound is equal to 33 cents per busliel for the corn ; while one bushel of corn, ground and boiled, makes 22 lbs. of pork at four cents per pound, and is equal to 88 cents per bushel for tlie corn. This I'esult about sustains our calculations made upon the experiments by Mr. Samuel II. Clay, of Kentucky, as appears in ^ 5.

It is worth}' of remark for those who wish to feed corn in the field, that had the hogs been turned into the field when the corn was in the milk, it would liave given a result more nearly like that of the hog fed ni)oa ground and cooked food.

The obstacles which seem to be in t!ie way of adopting an improved method of fattening hogs result from the imperfect apparatus used for ])rcparing the food. Sending corn a long distance to mill to be ground, and then to coo.k .he meal in an ordinary kettle, even if it holds a barrel, will ])rove an expensive operation, as all have found who have undertaken it. But to realize the full advantages of feeding prepared food, a complete grinding and steaming apparatus must bo erected on a large scale, with the view to perform the grinding, cooking, and feeding with the greatest facility and at the least possible cost. This may be done to advantage by employing steam for grinding, using the same boiler to furnish steam for cooking the meal.

13. Ori?ia of t!ic Chester foanty Hogs,— It is stated that Captain James Jefleris, a eea-ca])fain, somewhere about 1820,, or a little later, in one of his voyages from England, brought over a pair of ]iigs of the Bedfordshire breed, which he sent to his fai'm on the Brandywine, whence the breed has been disseminated, and lost its original name. Some of the characteristics of the Chester County liog are, large size, remarkably symmetrical form, easy keeping, comparatively little offal, great depth and length of carcass, and producing large quantities of lard. Spring pigs are often put in market at nine or ten mon'hs old, and weighing at that age from 200 to 250 lbs. This weight is of course produced liy good feeding and proper attention.

14-. To frevcut Sows KiHing their PIgSi— A correspondent of the Muiuf. Farmer speaks of several cases of sow.-: destroying their ju'gs — which, indeed, is not unusual — and conimcnds as an c.isy and su''e ])revention, " to give

30 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.

tlie sow .nboiit half a pint of good ruiu or gin, which soon produces intoxica- liiin, and the drunken mother becomes entirely harndess toward her young, and will ever accommodate her poiitiou to the be^^t advantage of the pig-^, ntaining this disposition ever afterward." The editor eonlirms tliis statement fiom cases witiiin his own knowledge.

15. Pift-Brcfdiu,!^". — Notwithstanding the fact that more people are iiHerested in the breeding tif pigs than of any otlier class of domestic animals, the atten- tion paid to improvement of the stock is very small. How few farmers know that the sow should always be larger than tlie male, and that he should always be of the most perfettt form; of good color, and perfectly sound and liealtliy, because almost invariably the pigs take the qualities of the sire in- stead of the mother ; that is, his good or bad points will preponderate largely over those of the sow. Farmers, please think of this fact, and profit by it.

16. Large UogSi — Isaac Harrison, of Burlington County, N. J., fatted, ki 1858, 32 hogs that averaged 5G9 lbs. each; and William Taylor, of Ocean County, fatted 30 that averaged 537 lbs. each. Tliomas Hood, of Ocean County, fatted 41 that averaged 533 lbs. each. So says C. W. Hartsliorn, iif Burlington County, who sends us a list of weights, among which are very few under 500 lbs. ; the lightest that we notice weighs 428 lbs.

17. Gross and Net Weight of Swiue. — The rule of ascertaining the net weight of fat hogs is to deduct one fifth of the gross weight. It is an easy way to make the calculation, or reduction of gross to net weight, by using tiie decimal 8-10 as a multiplier, cutting off one right-hand figure of the l)roduct, to show the net sum. Thus: 10 hogs Aveigh 2,729 lbs. ; multiply by. 8, which will make net 2,183.2 lbs.

K you have the gross weight of a drove of hogs at home, which you may liave taken to market and sold at net weight, and wish to ascertain how the net and gross compare, take your sum of the net weight, say 2,183.2. Divide by 8-10, and j'ou will find the quotient 2,729.

This will be found a very convenient and useful rule. Sometimes a person may be offered one sum as a gross price, and another as a net price of the same lot, and would like to know at once which otler is the best. This is (juickly done. You have simply to apply the same rule of division by eight tentlis to the price, instead of weight. For instance suppose the offer is — as it sometimes is in New York — $5 25 per cwt. gross, or $G 50 net. Divide §5 25 by 8-10, the quotient will be $6 56.2, showing that it will be six cents and two mills per cwt. gross to the owner's advantage to sell at $5 25 gross.

18. Salting Meat Marm. — C. Eovie, of Gnllprairie, Michigan, asks : " "Will pork cin-e, if packed before tlie animal heat is all out of it ?" He then answers : " Last year I killed my hogs and packed them while warm. I have some of the pork now, and I never ate any sweeter pork than this is. Tlie most of farmers think pork salted, while warm, will not keej)."

We have tried the experiment repeatedly of salting pork as soon as we could cut it up after dressing, and certainly prefer it, as it will, when dry- salted, cure much quicker.

PLATE III.

(Page 31.)

This plate is intended to answer the question : ' ' What is a good cow ?" It shows a model cow, without regard to breed, as described in ^ 45, and a portrait of the " Oaks Cow," which was one of the most remarkable of the early age of stock improvement as a great butter producer. She gave 467 pounds from May 15 to December 20, 181G. Another portrait gives the side view of what is taken as a model of a good dairy cow. The Dutch dairy cow is also con- sidered a model, not only of that breed, but of a form that shows a good cow for milk. The Hereford cow and bull, and Devon cow and bull, also give good studies, and make up a picture no where else to be found in such compact form and such beauty of execu- tion.

in

A Good Diity Cawr A Good Milrii r<rw

1»1KKKHK>T llUKKDS •.r l'ATTI.K.rT»«1'XlTKl> STATKS .

19.- Speeies of Anim:!

csting account of a fl - I'lie primitive source identical with t!i>. new in animal 1 i

20. ■ '■

liJit-

.-..' of herbaceous an! I '11 iky and rongh fooi' ' and albuminous suli

diversity of food to make up a health v

givc3 a yerj inter- ies of animals. . I lie liorso. are ' ;inytliing

. ■'•■ so-

tie .of

1)63

]T!f««>Hon thnt many

no.

r,on

to be ^'.d, wJLi.

■ fi Oil- in

.[ii with tlu', . havekn(.n ■.ilk than ai e rejected

illy

t. *

S«:!.l

^f

^■

BHBBraiBBBa

MHam

■WiPl

Seo. 3.}

COWS.

31

19. Species of Auimals. — ^Tlie Bevue Horticole, of Paris, gives a very inter- esting iiccount of a discussion in the Academie upon the species of animals. The primitive source of animals is lost ; tlie fossil bones of the horse are identical with those of the present day. There is no account of anything new in animal life since the Mosaic account of creation.

20. Animal Strncture. — " Tiie bony frame-work of the animal owes its so- lidity to phoiiphate of lime, and this substance must be furnished by the food. A perfect food must supply the animal with these three classes of bodies, and in proper proportions. What proportions are the proper ones we have at present no means of knowing with accuracy. Tlie ordinary kinds of food for cattle contain a large quantity of vegetable fiber or woody matter, which is more or less indigestible, but which is indispensable to the welfare of herbaceous animals, as their digestive organs are adapted to a bulky and rough food. The addition of a small quantity of feed rich in oil and albuminous substances to the ordinary kinds of food, has been found highly advantageous in practice. Neither hay alone, nor concentrated food alone, gives the best result. A certain combination of the two presents the most advantages."

The above is the view of an eminent professor of agi-icultural chemistry' (S. "W. Johnson), and it contains a great fact that should be adopted into the every-day practice of every farmer, and not only for his stock, but his own iionsehold. Every animal of a higher organization than a worm needs a diversity of food to make up a healthy animal structure.

SECTION III.-COWS.

\ HAT is a Good Cow ? — This is a question that many owners of cows can not answer, because there is no standard. Every one has his own, and one person may recommend a cow on sale as positively good, that is not half as valuable as one that comes only up to the standard of another person's idea of good- ness. Besides, one cow may be good for producing milk for sale by the quart ; another good for making butter, where that alone is the object ; a third one may be good for a cheese dairy and very poor for butter; and a fourth not good for either purpose, and should at once be turned out for beef. Farmers do not experiment enough with their cows to ascer- Jp tain these facts. We have known one cow discarded

from a butter dairy because she gave less milk than another, when one was to be sold, without any other proof that the rejected one was not equally

32 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. Chap. J.

good. For butter-making, vre think a cow which gives 14 quarts of milk a day, when fresh, and 14 lbs. of butter a week, a good cow, and that tliat might be adopted into use as tiie meaning of a good butter-dairy cow. A good many cows, it is true, go above tlmt, but they should be ranked as extra good. A cow that gives 12 or 14 quarts of milk a day, and 10 lbs. of butter a week, might be called a fair medium cow ; and one tliat gives 8 to 12 quarts a day and 6 or 7 lbs. of butter a week, should be called com- mon, and all below that inferior, as in fact they are ; and so is a cow that gives 15 or 16 quarts of milk a day that yields only a pound of butter, and there are many of this description. Tlie lowest rate we ever lieard was 3 (piarts of milk for 1 lb. of butter ; but that is very rare, the average being over 12 quarts.

It would be an excellent ]ilan for some leading agricultural society to establish a standard for a good cow. We think a cow that comes up to the standard of that owned by Otis Hunt, of Eaton Village, N. Y., will pass for a good one. He gives the following statement of the amount of butter made from her: "Amount made from April 8 to July 8, 191 lbs. ; amount made during the month of June, 74 lbs. ; amount made during the year, 516 lbs., besides furnishing all the milk and cream used in a family of four persons (and occasional visitors) all the time."

The breed of this good cow is given as " native," and the quality of milk and butter excellent.

22. Garget in fOMS. — A letter from Fort Independence, Castle IslaVid, Boston Harbor, Mass., says:

"Within the last two years I have pureha-^ed at dliFerent times three cows, say about one every six months. After they are on the island a few months they becou'ie ' gargety ;' therefore I should think the complaint is brought on from eating some weed peculiar to this island, which is limited in extent, say about thirty acres."

No, sir ; it is because they have not eaten some weed — a weed called poke or scoke, producing the " scoke-berries" that robins and school-children are both fond of gathering in the fall. This scoke is the natural cure for garget. It is said that the diseastc never atiocts cows th;it run in ])astures where it grows. We have known the dried roots sell for $2 a lb in Vermont to feed cows, and to make little plugs to insert in the teats to cure the garget. It is there known by the name of gaPL'ct root. {jiJnjtolacci dtcan<lra).

23. How to Increase the Value of a Cow.— Every one who owns a cow can see at a glance that it would be profitable to increase the value of her, but every one can not see how to do it. We can, and we think that wc can make it equally palpable to our readers. If a cow is kejU for butter, it cer- tainly would add to her value if the butter-making projwrtios of her milk should be improved. In summer or winter this can be done, just as the yield of a cultivated crop can be impr ned by wh;>.t is fed to each, and it is simply a question of, will it pay, in manni ing one or feeding the other. Indian corn will add to the quantity and quality of the butter to a very sensible degree.

Sec. 3.] COWS, AKD THEIR FOOD. 33

and it is simply a question of easy solution, by experiment, whether it will add to the profit of the Luttcr-maker to buy corn at one or two cents a pound, and convert a portion of it into butter at 25 cents a pound, or whatever llie market price of corn and butter may be, and another portion of it into fat, and another portion of it into manure, for that is the natural result of the chemical change produced in the laboratory of the cow's stomach. The same result will follow any otiicr kind of feeding. Good jjasture will produce an abundance of milk, often as much as the cow can carry ; but does it follow that even then it will not be profitable to feed her Avitli some more oleagi- nous food to increase the quantity of butter, just as it sometimes ^^roves profitable to feed bees, to enable them to store more honey ? It certainly does appear to us that the value of a cow feeding xipon ordinary winter food may be almost doubled by making that food suitable for the purpose of increasing the quantity of milk, if that is the object, or the quantity of butter, if that is the purpose for which the cow is kept. Farmers generally understand that they can convert corn into beef, pork, and lard, and some of them know exactly at what price per bushel it will pay to convert it into these substances ; but does any one know at what rate it will pay to convert corn or any other grain into butter, or any other kind of feed into any of the dairy products ? Is the whole business a hap-hazard one ? We fear so. Some persons know that they can increase the salable value of butter by adding the coloring matter of carrots to it. Does any person know the value of a bushel of carrots fed to a cow to increase her value as a butter- / producing laboratory? Experimental proof upon this point would be far' more worthy of agricultural prizes than it is to see who can show the largest- sized roots ; for by a few carefully-conducted experiments we should be able to increase the value of a cow almost at pleasure.

21. Pasture — How many t'ows to aa Acre. — In Cheshire, England, which is a great grazing county, the land that has been under-drained and top- dressed with ground bones, will carry one cow to each acre througli the summer, but the land not thus treated will only carry one cow to two acres. The dressing of bones upon pasture land is 12 to 15 cwt. per acre once in seven years. But even if not repeated at that time, it still continues better than it was before the bones were applied.

Now, how many acres of pasture, on the average, does it require in this country to the cow? "Would it not be economy to improve our pasture lands up to the Cheshire standard ?

25. Food Consumed by a Cow. — It is generally estimated that a cow needs each day three per cent, of her M'cight in hay. Tliat is, if she weighs 8 cwt., which a fair-sized cow will do, in working order, she will require 24 lbs., or its equivalent, of hay. For five months' feeding — 150 days — you will require 3, GOO lbs. In the New England States the feeding period averages nearer six than five months, and therefore two tuns of liay should be allowed for each cow.

26. Feed, Exercise, and Shelter have a powerful influence upon the health

34 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.

and comfort of all doincstic animals, and upon none is it more marked tlian upon the most valualjle of all, the cow. Every judicious farmer, who has an eye only to his purse, will see that his cows are bountifully supplied with proper food to produce the largest flow of milk, and rich in cream, and that his meadows and jiastui-es are free from noxious weeds, that will impart a disagreeable taste to the milk and butter. A mixture of timothy and white clover is the most desirable pasture for the dairy ; and the best and sweetest butter is generally produced in May and June ; for then kind Kature sends up a spontaneous supply of rich, juicy food, and the air is cool and pure, and all things combine to render the dairyman's task easy and delightful. But when the sun has scorclied the vegetation and imi)aired its nutritive properties, and the temperature of the atmosphere is like an oven, then there is need of skill to counteract the opposing influences of nature; and the task, though diflicult, can be accomplished, and a cool atmosphere created in the milk-room, and proper food supplied, as the reward of well-directed labor.

Every farmer should jiractice, at least on a small scale, growing extra feed for his cows, when pasture fails. One of the easiest things grown for fall feed is cabbage. It gives an immense amount of food per acre.

27. Feedillg Cows for Butter-iflakiag. — A writer in the Farmer and Gar- dener (Phila.) says: "The use of corn and cob-meal in my practice has produced more fat tlian butter. The best feed I have tried is two bushels of ship-stuiF to one bushel of ground corn. In the use of corn fodder, I have foimd great advantage in not only cutting, but steaming it. Many cows will not eat it witiiout its being steamed. ' Turnips are good enough, if the taste they impart to the butter is not objectionable. Pumpkins add largely to the quantity of milk, but the cream, in churning, is always frothy, and requires a longer time to be converted into butter.

" My plan of feeding is as follows : I always let my cows go dry about the first of the new year, giving them, by this plan, a rest of some two months. During this period of rest I feed them on hay, corn fodder, and straw. As soon as they begin to spring, I add four quarts of meal to eacli cow, which, after being mixed with the long straw and fodder, is steamed, and fed a litde ivarn^. Until tlie calves are separated from the cows, this amount of food is given once a day, after which time I feed them three times a day."

28. Health of Cows. — A sickly cow not only yields a diminished profit, but she yields sickly milk, and sickly in a higher degree than her flesh.

If a cow eats anything that has a strong or disagreeable odor, it appears in her milk.

If she eats anythijig medicinal, it comes out in her milk.

If she is feverish, her milk shows it.

If she lias sores about her, pus may be found in her milk.

If she is fed upon decayed or diseased food, her milk, since it is derived from her food, will be unhealthy. It is as impossible to make good milk from bad food, as to make a good building from rotten timber.

Seo. 3.] COWS— DIRECTIONS FOR SPAYING. 35

If there is anything wrong about her, it will appear in the milk, as that is an effective source of casting it froni her organism.

These facts should at all times be well impressed upon the minds of dairy- men, but more especially in the cold season of the year. Closely confined in tlieir narrow stalls tlirough the long winter, where tlie air is not always fresh and pure, nor water and exercise always had when desired, nor their food always free from foul medicinal weeds, as thistles, daisies, white top, etc., cows are very likely to vary from a perfectly healthy condition ; spring cheese will be faulty enough, do the best we can — that every dairyman knows. The health of the cows should not, at any rate, be allowed to become a cause of deterioration. Green food should now, if it has not been before, alternated as often as possible with the dry ; for this purpose, beets, carrots, turnips, potatoes, cabbages, parsneps, and apples are valuable.

Ventilation and Avatering should be promptly attended to, and salt and meal, made by pulverizing burned bones, should be kept where daily access can be had to them, if desired, nor should their strength and flesh be allowed to fail for the want of a sufKciently nutritious diet. The best flavored butter and cheese can not be made from cows that are badly fed, or ailing, or poor.

As bad health in parents transmits a tendency to disease in the offspring, it is important that every kind of animal we desire to continue on our farms should be kept vigorous and healthy.

As an unhealthy animal can not consume food to as good advantage as a well one, it is again economical to avoid disease.

29. The Amount of Hay required for Cows— The Cost of Milk.— Otis Brig- ham, of "Westborough, Mass., after seventy years' experience in farming, says, in the New England Farmer, that good cows will eat, on an average, 20 lbs. of hay per day when giving milk, and 15 lbs. when dry — not by guess-work, but tested by actual weighing, for months at a time. Then it is easy to calculate the cost of milk. In the neigliborhood of New York, the average value of hay is one cent a pound, and the quantity of milk hot over six quarts. At three and a half cents a quart, it will pay the hay bill, and one cent a day over. If other feed is given, the increase of milk must pay for that. The manure will be worth at least the cost of attendance and milking. If the milk is worth more than three and a half cents, it gives a profit; and if less, a loss.

30. For Ktckitig Cows. — ^Take a short strap, and fasten the ends together. Next prepare a pin of some soft wood, about six or eight inclies long, one and a half inches in diameter. Take the cow by the off fore-leg, and double it at the knee-joint close ; pass the strap or loop over the knee, pressing it back until you can insert the pin between that and the knee-joint, and she can not kick.

31. Directions for Spaying Cows. — Dr. Dadd, veterinary surgeon, in the American Stock Joiti'nal, says that the milk of spayed cows gives more cream than ordinary milk, and that tlie butter made from it is more delicious in taste. The milk is also invaluable for nursing infants. He thinks there is

36

DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

[Chap. I.

no danger in performing tlio operation, if slcillfully clone, and the animal init tukIlt the inflnencc of sulphuric ether.

Dr. Riggs, a veterinary surgeon, does not approve of giving chloroform to cows. He says: "It is no easy task to give ether or chloroform to animals generally, and it is usually quite as distressing to them as so slightly painful an operation as spaying. Tlie operation of casting is a very awkward one, and needless, and interferes with tlie case, if not the certainty, of the opera- tion. The ovaries are attached near the back-bone ; hence, -when a cow stands up, the pauncli and intestines fall away from them, and leave clear working space ; but when she is thrown upon her side, the case is different, and wlien the cow is in good flesh, there is none too jnucli space anj' way."

Dr. liiggs allows the cow to stand up, her head tied short, and an assistant hold.s her by the nose with clasps; a rope is tied loosely about her hind legs, to keep her from kicking ; an assistant pushes her uj) against a partition or wall, and another aids in the first part of the operation. Thus, the cow is not at all alarmed or uncomfortable.

The skin is folded so that the hair can be shaved off where the cut is to be, and thus a straight line, three quarters of an inch wide and five inches long, is laid bare. The skin is then drawn up in a fold, at right angles, to this line and in the middle of it. The operator grasps this fold on one side of the shaved line, in his left hand, and his assistant grasps it on the otlier side ; then, with a single, well-directed stroke, with a sharp knife, he severs the two thicknesses of hide exactly in the shaved line, letting go at the same time ; a straight, clean cut through the skin is seen, and the cow suffers almost no pain at all — not so much as that produced by the blow from a whip. If the cut is made slowly, it is the most painful part of the operation. There is little feeling in the tissues forming the walls of the cavity of the abdomen, and when these are cut tlirough, the hand may be easily introduced. The cow winces a little when the edges of the skin are rubbed, but shows no signs of pain.

The removal of the ovaries appears very casj', but it is not. If the opera- tor has a strong, sharp thumb-nail, he can work or cut them loose; but if not, or if the ovary is strongly attached, the operator is obliged to do as the books say — "in short, ^m// them away" — and in this is the great danger to the cow ; internal hemorrhage or inflammation is apt to ensue. Dr. Riggs avoids all this by the use of the " steel thumb-nail." This is simply a sharp knife, shaped like and bound upon the thumb-nail of the right hand. Tliere is no danger of cutting in the wrong place. A clean cut does not produce bleeding, as was feared at first, and it greatly simplifies and shortens the operation. Dr. Riggs has never operated upon a cow with this instrument when she struggled or attempted to get down, but once, and then she was a little nervous, and came down upon her knees, but soon got up again. Usually there is no struggling throughout the operation.

32. Calomel for Cows. — A correspondent of the yl7H('/vV«« J^armcr writes : "I wish you wo\ild say to your readers that calomel, in one ounce doses, Avill

Sec. 3.] COWS— DAIRY STOCK. 37

cure a cow of almost any disease. At least, let me give my experience. I have two fine, valuable cows ; they have had, it seems to me, some of the worst diseases tliat prevail — hlack-tongue, murrain, dry murrain, c;c. — and when I saw they were dying, I mixed one ounce of calomel in dry corn-nieal, which they would lick up, and it has never failed to cure."

33. Keep fows GentlCi— If you milk out doors, with the cow loose, provide good stools for each milker. See that they are never used to pound the cow with ; and never allow man or woman to kick or pound a cow in the stable or milking yard. If gentle means will not make a cow gentle, harsh means never will. It may be necessary to reduce a cow to obedience by a little punishment — to teach her, as you would a horse or ox, that you are master; but to accomplish this, never use anything but a light lash or smart switch, and never use that in anger. An angry man is a fool, compared with a sensible cow.

34. Ayrshire Cows. — In Massachusetts, the improvement of dairy stock by the introduction of Ayrshire blood has become so apparent, that no argu- ment could induce those acquainted with their value to return to the hazards (vf native breeding. We could point to farmers in Essex, Middlesex, and Vcircester counties, who, under the most prudent management, avail tliem- sclv^es of every opportunity to introduce Ayrshire blood into their herds, and our own observation teaches us that the importations of the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture, of Capt. Randall, of New Bedford, and (ithers, have been vastly beneficial to our dairy stock. The bulls of this broed can be traced wherever they have been, by the good stock they have left behind them. One of them was kept upon a secluded farm in Essex County, and rendered it famous for its fine dairy cows. Another gave superior character to the herd of one of our well-known farmers, and to all the dairies in his ncighboi-hood. An imported Ayrshire cov/, not far from us, has produced, through a variety of mixtures and pure breeding, a little herd of cows and heifers of tiie highest uniformity of excellence.

35. Poor Butter Cows. — Tlie Ft'i!</'/?irt7'/rt« gives a remedy for this difficulty with cows that arc well kept, and whose milk has been previously rich in butter. It is to tlicse that the remedy is principally directed. The remedy consists in giving the animal two ounces of the sulphuret of antimony, with three ounces of coriander seeds, powdered and well mixed. This is to be given as a soft bolus, and followed bj' a draught composed of half a pint of vinegar, a pint of water, and a handful of common salt, for three successive mornings, on an empty stomach.

This remedy, according to the author, rarely fails, and the milk produced some days after its exhibition is found to be richer in cream. The first churning yields a larger quantity of butter, but the second and third are still more satisfactory in their results.

A letter from a farmer states that he had fourteen cows in full milk, from which he obtained very little butter, and that of a bad quality. Guided by the statements of M. Deiieubourg, which had apjieared in the An'nalesVet-

38 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.

en'jiauvs, he had separately tested the milk of his cows, and found that tlie bad quality of it was owing to one cow only, and that the milk of the others yielded good and abundant butter. It was, therefore, clearly established that the loss he liad so long sustained was to be attributed to this cow only. lie at once administered the remedy recommended by M. Deneubourg, which effected a cure.

36. W'iiiter Feed of Oraage County Dairy Cows. — Mr. C. Edward Brooks, one of the best dairymen in tlie county, claims that rye makes more milk than corn or oats, or other meal. Brewei-s' grains were formerly bo\ight so as to cost 6 cents delivered at the farm, but now, at 12 cents, they are not so profitable as rye feed at 75 cents per bushel. Oats he esteems the i:)00rest kind of grain for ujilk. lie thinks that by currying a cow, and keeping her and her stable scrupulously clean, she will give lier full quantity of milk on half the feed required if she is neglected. Ilis daily allowance to each cow is five pounds of meal, either corn, corn and oats, or buckwheat or wheat bran, changing the kind frequently — for practice approves what theory teaches, that animals thrive best on a frequent change of diet. The animals are fed and milked at regular hours — generally at four o'clock in the afternoon and six in the morning; in winter, somewhat earlier in the afternoon and later in the morning. Care is taken to observe great punctu- ality as to time of milking, for the animals give much less trouble and thrive better. Mr. Brooks chati's his hay, steeps it in warm Avater to soften it, and sprinkles the meal over it, mixing it thoroughly. Throughout the day as much long hay is fed as the cows will eat. The feed is mixed in a long box, shaped like an ordinary bath-tub, which" runs on small iron truck-wheels, one at either end, and two at the sides, half way between. This is a very convenient method for carrying the whole mess along the passage between the stalls, and with a wooden scoop giving to each cow her share as her stall is passed. The water to steep the hay is heated in a caldron, in a small outbuilding, and conducted to the cow-stable through a small tin pipe.

Mr. Seeley C. Roe, near Chester, a large dairyman and an intelligent farmer, thinks that half-clover hay, Avell made, and half grain, is better for milk production than twice as much timothy with grain. He does not cut and steep his hay, but dampens it with cold water, and adds meal, as usual. He finds it an excellent plan to feed buckwheat whole, and prepares it by boiling the grain with the hulls on, and M-hcn it lias become lliorouglily soaked, puts it into the feed-box at the rate of two quarts to cacli cow. He adds to this two quarts of dry meal, and the heat and steam of the cooked buckwheat cooks the meal. Four quarts of this mixture are allowed to each cow — two in the morning and two at night — and the animals arc kept on this feed until turned out to grass.

Mr. Gregory has an eight-horse power engine for cutting hay, threshing, grinding, etc., and uses the waste steam for steaming his hay. He lias constructed a large chamber, capable of holding one himdred bushels of cut hay, which, before being steamed, is dampened. The steam-pipe from

Seo. 3.] COWS— FEEDING ROOia 39

the engine empties into the chamber, and the hay is steamed for about <i quarter of an hour, and then fud to the stock unmixed with meal — that is, given in the form of a warm mash.

37. SHgar-Caue for Cows. — If the Chinese sngar-cane does not prove to be a profitable sugar-making plant, we think it will be a profitable one for forage. The Homestead says that Deacon Edward Ilayden, of East Hartford, Conn., has raised the Chinese sugar-cane for two years, and has used it for feeding milch cows with great success. The first year the stalks were left in the field, scattered about, we believe, and occasionally in dry weather brought to the barn to the cows, which ate them up clean, stalks and all. This was merely a sort of accidental experiment, as no especial value was set upon the canes. The past year he raised more, shocked in the field, and left it there. It cured well, and the cows ate it with great avidity, and Mr. Hay- den esteems it as a great milk-producing diet.

38. FceJliag Hoots. — I have a word to say on winter feed for stock. It is more by way of query, and for feeders to think of, than by way of instruc- tion. My experience in feeding domestic animals is not sufficient to warrant nie in giving instruction. I have served my time in too rough a school for that. I have fed a good deal of hay, worth from $1 50 to $5 a tun ; and corn from 10 to 25 cents a bushel, and other grain in proportion, and straw absolutely valueless. While living in such a district, I have often been asked the question, "Why I did not raise more roots for my cattle? I answered : Simply because it would not jiiay. I did buy a lot of ruta bagas one autumn, delivered at my house at six cents a bushel, and the use of them taught me that they were dear food. I would now, if living in such a dis- trict, feed roots to stock just so far as I thought necessary to keep the animals in good health, and no more ; not if I could buy at the same price, which was one fourth the price of sound corn ; and I question the economy of feed- ing any kind of roots at the same rate of value to any greater extent than is required for health. Tiiat roots, particularly white turnijis, are too largely fed in cold weather to young cattle, I have no doubt. They are so full of water that too much of it is taken into the stomach with the food. If roots, or any other watery food, are too largely fed to milch cows before and after calving, you will be sure to have a mean calf. If we will think, and take reason for a guide, as to what man requires for healthy food, we shall not go far wrong with domestic animals. Man likes roots occasionally, and so ho does soup, or other sloppy food ; but what wotild he be good for if fed week after week upon such watery stuff as turnips, or such porridge as some people compel their cattle to eat ? After all, this question of winter feeding is a question of values ; and it is not alone the value, counted by first cost, but the value of results. Now, what is the use of giving my opinion that this or that kind of food is the best, or most economical, when I can not say of a single thing, •! know. I don't know, and don't know anybody who does. It is all guess-work, and at the present price of cattle-food, it is e.xpensive guessing.

40 DOMESTIC ANIM^VLS. [Chap. I.

39. Wintering Cows. — The method of feeding cows in winter is not so im- portant as it is to make the change from grass to hay and from hay ta grass witliout producing any deterioration in their condition. It is liigldy import- ant, if yonr cows are giving milk ii{)on autumn pasture, that you do not allow them to fall ofl' in milk or flesh for want of a little extra feed. I have never found anything quite equal to corn-meal for cow-feed, particularly when you are making butter. It may not be necessary nor economical to feed cows meal in autumn, even if pasture does fail, if you have green corn- stalks, pumpkins, turnips, cabbage, etc., which must be consumed, because not good to keep through winter. But in spring, when cows are flrst turned to grass, they are very apt to fall away, and then it will be found to be good economy to feed meal every night in the yard, and so it will before the cows are turned out, if not in first-rate condition.

I see the calculation of one writer that corn-meal, thus fed, Avas worth $3 a bushel, fed at the rate of one quart a day to a cow, for twenty or thirty days. He says :

" I have also found, by other experiments, that there is a great difference in the manner of getting animals to grass. When turned out early, with little or no other feed, tliej' fall away greatly; on the coqirary, if fed all the good hay they will eat, night and morning, with a judicious feeding of meal of some kind (and I prefer mixed feed — that is, mixing the difl'erent grains together before tliey are ground— to any one variety), they will soon begin to gain finely by such a course, and carry their extra weights through the season. In an experiment now being conducted, I have a cow that has, since the first of December last, been quietly laying on her two pounds per day (or nearly so), and her feed has been only moderate, as I am no advocate for forcing, but simply good fair keeping and care ; then, with good animals, we are sure of a fair remuneration for care and feeding.

"I would that what I have already written could reach the eye of every farmer in these United States, and that each one would set liimself about making at least one experiment in the care of farm-stock."

40. Cows Badly Wintered arc ruprofltable.— A farmer can not afford to winter any stock poorly, and least of all, milch cows, or those which are to produce calves in the spring. Look at the following statement, and see if the Western Reserve farmers can aft'ord thus to winter cows.

A letter from Warren, Trumbull County, Ohio, written in April, ISCO, says : "The present times are the worst we have ever known in this country. Cows and cattle are dying by the hundred ; six hundred liead have died within the three adjoining counties this winter for want of food. Tlie weather is still dry and cold."

This is only one, among many illustrations, of the folly and wrong com- mitted by Western farmers in keeping more stock than can be housed and fed. This is the case all through the Western country. Travel over any portion of it, and you will see scores of cattle shivering in the cold storms of winter, without shelter, and so poorly fed that if they live through the

Seo. 3.] CO^VS— HOW TO CHOOSE A GOOD OWR. 41

severe season it is more by cliance thaii for any care whicli they receive. On the prairies, cattle can be kept so easily in summer that every one is tempted to overstock himself to such a degree, while the grass is green, that a portion must die in winter. Now we would say to the fanners, you can not afford this. Every one of these six hundred cattle which perished in Ohio could have been sold at a low price by the owners, who were short of feed, to others who would have carried them through the winter. And how infinitely better this would have been than to allow such an amount of stock to die of starvation !

It is not only in Trumbull County that cattle have perished in winter ; the entire West has suffered equally in this respect with Ohio. On the Illinois prairies, where there is no limit to the amount of hay that might be cut, cattle have died in large numbers for the want of a quarter more hay 'than they had eaten during the winter. And yet the farmers of those dis- tricts persevere in their criminal folly, although the result of each year's experience ought to be sufficient to open their eyes to a proper realization of the truth. No farmer can afford to keep more cows or horned cattle than he can provide hay for at the rate of two tuns per head ; he should never attempt to keep moi'e cattle than he can house warmly, unless lie has hay to waste, and is willing to sacrifice at least one fourth of the stock.

It is one of the most painful sights to be met with in traveling through the West, while passing the little cabins of the new settlers, to see cows and calves, oxen and young stock, all huddling together, without any shelter from the cold winter storm. Is it any wonder that one half of these liimished, neglected things should perish before spring? Farmers, you must learn wisdom from the calamities of severe winters. Keep fewer cattle, and keep them better, and you will make more mone3-. We might give hundreds of extracts from country papers to convince you that feed is scarce every year, but it would be superfluous. The richest corn country of Indiana has suffered quite as much as its sister States during many hard winters • and this is because it is a rich corn country, and rich in nothing else. Large farms without grass ; cattle without food, dying by thousands ; farmers losing all their stock, " because it is a late spring," or, rather, because they undertook to winter an unreasonable number. Will the fiirmers of our country never take advantage of the experience of the past, and learn that they can not afford these wasteful and ruinous sacrifices ?

il. To €hoosc a Good MiEch Cow, — Select from a good breed. We ]irefcr the Devons^bright bay red. The Durhams are roan, red, M-hite, and mix- tures of these colors. Ayrshire cows arc generally red and M-hite spotted. Ilerefords, red or darker colored, with white faces. Alderncys, pale red and mixed with white. These are the principal colors of the several breeds of whicli the Durhams are the largest and Alderneys the smallest. Different individuals will contend for eacli breed being the best and only one that should be selected for their milking qualities. But animals of each breed and of crosses of them, often prove remarkable milkers, and so do some of the

42 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.

native stock of the country. Two families of cows — one owned by Colonel Jaques, of Ten Hills Fann, near Charlcstown, Mass., and one owned liy Major John Jones, of Wheatland Farm, near Middletown, Del. — were called native breed, yet were the most remarkable butter-makers we have overseen. We have seen Col. Jaques produce good butter in throe minutes, by simply stirring the cream in a bowl. If we were about selecting a milch cow, we would endeavor to get one out of such a herd of good milkers ; one with a soft, velvety-feeling skin, slim neck, fine legs, broad stern, with what is called a large escutcheon — that is, the hair of the stern pointing inward ; a large udder, slim teats, and large veins, commonly called milk veins, on the belly. Above all things, select your cow of a gentle, pleasant countenance, because a lirst-rate milker may be so vicious as to be worthless. Do not look for flesh, as the best cows are seldom fat ; their hip-bones are often vcr}- prominent, and they have the appearance of being low in flesh. A beefy cow is seldom a good milker.

The next thing is, what is a good milker? That is, how mucli milk must she yield per day ? A cow that will average 5 quarts of milk a day through the year, making 1,825 quarts, is an extraordinary good cow. One that will yield 5 quarts a day for 10 months is a good cow, and one that will average 4 quarts during that time is more than an average qualitj'. That woultl make 1,200 quarts a year, which, at three cents a quart, is $36. We believe the Orange County milk dairies average about $40 per cow, and the quality of the cows is considerably above the average of the country.

It is as important to keep a cow good as it is to get her good. This can never be done by a careless, lazy milker. Always milk yoiir cow quick and perfectly clean, and never try to counteract nature by taking away her calf. Let it suck, and don't be afraid "it will butt her to death." It will distend the udder, and make room for the secretion of milk. Ee ge-ntle with your cow, and you will have a gentle cow. Select well, feed M'ell, house M'ell, milk well, and your cow will yield well.

42. The Different Breeds of fowsi — We advise you to examine, in this connection, the diflereiit breeds of cows, so that the general appearance, so far as outline of form is concerned, may be very well understood. Good and full descriptions may be found in a standard work upon " Jlilcli Cows and Dairy Farming," edited by Charlcj L. Flint, secretary of the Massaclui- setts State Board of Agri.?nlture, and we give a few short extracts from that work, upon each breed, as follows :

43. Ayrshire Cows Described! — " The Ayrshires are justly celebrated throughout Great Britain and this country for their excellent dairy qualities. Though the most recent in their origin, they are pretty distinct from the other Scotch and English races. In color, the pure Ayrshires are generally red and white, spotted or mottled — not roan, like many of the short-horns, but often presenting a bright contrast of colors. They are sometimes, thougli rarely, nearly or quite all red, and sometimes black and white ; but the favorite color is red and white brightly contrasted, and by some, straw-

Seo. 3.] COWS— BREEDS COMPARED. 43

berry color is preferred. The head is small, fine, and clean ; the face long, and narrow at the muzzle, with a sprightly, j'et generally mild, expression ; eye small, smart, and lively ; the horns short, fine, and slightly twisted upward, set wide apart at the roots ; the neck thin ; body enlarging from fore to hind quarters ; the back straight and narrow, but broad across the loin; joints rather -loose and open; ribs rather flat; hind quarters rather thin ; bone fine ; tail long, fine, and bushy at the end ; hair generally thin and soft ; udder light color and capacious, extending well forward under the belly ; teals of the cow of medium size, generally set regularly and wide apart ; milk-veins prominent and well developed. The carcass of the pure- bred Ayrshire is light, particularly the fore quarters, which is considered by good judges as an index of great milking qualities; but the pelvis is capa- cious and wide over the hips.

" On tlie whole, the Ayrshire is good-looking, but wants some of the sym- metry and aptitude to fatten which characterize the short-horn, which is supposed to have contributed to build up this valuable breed on the basis of the original stock of the county of Ayr."

44. Yield of Miik of Ayrshire Cowso — " Youatt estimates the daily yield of an Ayrshire cow, for the first two or three months after calving, at five gallons a day, on an average ; for the next three months, at three gallons ; and for the next four months, at one gallon and a half. This would be 850 gallons as the annual average of a cow; but, allowing for some unproductive cows, he estimates the average of a dairy at 600 gallons per annum for each cow. Three gallons and a half of tlie Ayrshire cow's milk Avill yield one and a half pounds of butter. lie therefore reckons 257 lbs. of butter, or 514 lbs. of cheese, at the rate of 24 lbs. to 28 gallons of milk, as the yield of every cow, at a fair and perhaps rather low average, in an Ayrshire dairy, during the year. Alton sets the yield much higher, saying that " thousands of the best Ayrshire dairy-cows, when in prime condition and well fed, produce 1,000 gallons of milk per annum; that in general three and three-quarters to four gallons of their milk will yield a pound and a half of butter ; and that 27 j gallons of their milk will make 21 lbs. of full- milk cheese." Mr. Eankin puts it lower — at about 650 to 700 gallons to each cow ; on his own farm of inferior soil, his dairy produced an average of 550 gallons only."

45. ¥ie!d of Milk of Breeds Compared. — " In a series of experiments on the Earl of Chesterfield's dairy farm, at Bradley Hall, interesting as giving positive data on which to form a judgment as to the yield, it was found that, in the height of the season, the Holderness cows gave seven gallons and one quart per diem ; the long-horns and Alderneys, four gallons and three quarts; the Devons, four gallons and one quart; and that, when made into butter, the above quantities gave, res2:)ectively, 3Si ounces, 28 ounces, and 25 ounces.

" The Ayrshire, a cow fiir smaller than the Holderness, at five gallons of milk and 34 ounces of butter per day, gives a fair average as to yield of

44 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.

milk, and an enormous production of butter, giving witiiin four and a half ounces as much from her five gallons ns the Holderness from her seven gal- lons and one quart ; her rate being nearly seven ounces to the gallon, while tliat of the Holderness is considerably under six ounces.

" According to Mr. Ilarley, the most approved shape and marks of a good dairy cow are as follows: Head small, long, and narrowtoward the muzzle; horns small, clear, bent, and placed at considerable distance from each other ; eyes not large, but brisk and lively ; neck slender and long, tapering toward the head, with a little loose skin below; shoulders and fore quartei-s light and thin ; hind quarters large and broad ; back straight, and joints slack and open ; carcass deep in the rib ; tail small and long, reaching to the heels ; legs small and short, with firm joints ; udder square, but a little oblong, . stretching forward, thin-skinned, and capacious, but not low hung; teats or paps small, pointing outwai-d, and at a considerable distance from each other ; milk-veins capacious and prominent ; skin loose, thin, and s<ift, like a glove ; hair short, soft, and woolly; general figure, when in flesh, handsome and well proportioned."

46. The Ayrshires for the Dairy — Their Value Considered.— Upon this point Mr. Flint quotes and indorses the following opinion :

"For purely dairy purposes, the Ayrshire cow deserves the first place. In consequence of her small, symmetrical, and compact body, combined with a well-formed chest and a capacious s'omach, there is little waste, compara- tivel}'^ speaking, through the respirator}' system; while, at the same time, tiiere is very complete assimilation of the food, and thus she converts a large proportion of her food into milk. So remarkable is this fact, that all dairy farmei-s who have any experience on the point, agree in stating that an Ayrshire cow generally gives a larger return of milk for the food consumed than a cow of any other hreed. Tlie absolute quantity may not be so great, but it is obtained at a less cost ; and this is the point upon which the question of profit depends."

47. The Jersey or Alderaey fow. — Tliere is a great diversity of opinion about the value of this breed of cows. It is our opinion that they are the most Valuable of all, where only one or two are to be kept, and when butter is the main object. The milk of an Alderney cow is the richest of all for household consumption, and makes the most and best butter; and the cow is generally very docile, and in her native country is frequently kept upon very much such food as we keep a pig upon in this country. Tlie greatest olijection that we have heard urged upon them is their small size and lack of beauty, as compared with the symmetrical forms of Durhams, Devons, Ayrshires, and some of our natives. It is objected, too, that butter and cheese made from Alderney cows' milk will not keep, because it is " too rich." If it is mixed with other milk, it improves both, for then the butter and cheese are rich, and have no hu-k of keeping qualities.

48. Ori.Tin and Description of Jersey Cows. — " The Jersey race is supposed to have been derived originally from Kormandy, in the northern part of

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PLATE IV.

(Page 44.)

This picture is a stud}- of four of the improved breeds of cattle which are briefly described in Chapter I., pages 31 to 51 ; and with the other two upon Plate III., the reader has, as it were, at one view, representatives of the Durham, Devon, Hereford, Ayrshire, Jersey or Alderney, and the improved Dutch — six of the most im- portant breeds of imported cattle. These beautiful pictures, with what we have said of the animals, will give those who have no op- portunity of studying them alive, a very good insight of their varied form and character. For this they should be highly valued, as they are true representations from life.

Seo. 3.] COWS— BREEDS COMPAKED. 45

France. The cows have been long celebrated for the production of very rich milk and cream, but till within a quarter of a century they were com- paratively coarse, ugly, and ill-shaped. Improvements have been very marked, but the form of the animal is still far from satisfying the eye. The head of the pure Jersey is fine and tapering, the cheek small, the throat clean, the muzzle fine and encircled with a light stripe, the nostril high and open ; the horns smooth, crumpled, not very thick at the base, tapering, and tipped with black ; ears small and thin, deep orange color inside ; eyes full and placid ; neck straight and fine ; chest broad and deep ; barrel hooped, broad and deep, well ribbed up ; back straight from the withers to the hip, and from the top of the hip to the setting on of the tail ; tail fine, at right angles with the back, and hanging down to the hocks ; skin thin, light color, and mellow, covered with fine, soft hair; fore legs short, straight, and fine below the knee; arm swelling and full above ; hind quarters long and well filled; hind legs short and straight below the hocks, with bones rather fine, squarely placed, and not too close together; hoofs small; udder full in size, in line with the belly, extending Avell np behind ; teats of medium size, squarely placed, and wide apart, and milk-veins very prominent. The color is generally cream, dun, or yellow, with more or less white, and the fine head and neck give the cows and heifers a fawn-like appearance, and make them objects of attraction in the park ; but the hind quarters are often too narrow to look well, particularly to those who judge animals from the amount of fat they carry."

49. Fattening Properties of a Jtrsey €ow. — " It is asserted by Colonel Le Couteur, of the island of Jersey, that, contrary to the general opinion here, the Jersey cow, when old and no longer wanted as a milker, will, when dry and fed, fatten rapidly, and produce a good quantity and excellent quality of butchers' meat. An old cow, he says, was put up to fatten in October, 1850, weighing 1,125 lbs., and when killed, the 6th of January, 1851, she weighed 1,330 lbs., having gained 205 lbs. in 98 days, on 20 lbs. of hay, a little wheat-straw, and 30 lbs. of roots — consisting of carrots, Swedes, and mangel-wurzel — a day."

50. The Short-ljorn Durham €ow. — There is no room for dispute about the Durhams being good for beet'. For butter or for general dairy purposes, I shoidd not choose them. Mr. Flint says:

"In sections where the climate is moist and the food abundant and rich, some fiimilies of the short-horns may be valuable for the dairy ; but they are most frequently bred exclusively for beef in this country, and in sections where they have attained the highest perfection of form and beauty, so litle is thought of their- milking qualities, that they are often not milked at all, the calf being allowed to run with the dam."

Crosses, however, of this breed upon other breeds have produced excellent milkers. In Westchester County, N. Y., there is a valuable strain of daiiy stock known as " Dutch and Durham."

51. The Dutch Cow. — The old Holland stock shows a very symmet-

4G DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Ciiap. I.

rical, handsome form, but not quite as much so as the Durham, which ■was made uji, it is generall}' su])posed, by a cross of the Dutch breed upon the Teeawater stock. The Dutch cow is not as heavy an animal as the improved Durham, but she is more highly esteemed for dairy purposes.

52. The Hfreford f ow. — '• Tiie Hereford cattle derive their name from a county in the western part of England. Tiieir general characteristics are a white face, sometimes mottled; white throat, the white generally extending back on the neck, and sometimes, though rarely, still farther along on the back. The color of the rest of the body is red, generally dark, but some- times light. Eighty years ago the best Hereford cattle were mottled or roan all over; and some of the best herds, down to a comparatively recent period, were either all mottled, or had the mottled or speckled face. The exi)ression of the face is mild and lively ; tlie forehead open, broad, and large ; the eyes bright and full of vivacity ; the horns glossy, slender, and spreading ; the head small, though larger and not quite so clean as that of the Devons; the lower jaw iinc; neck long and slender; chest deep; breast- bone large, prominent, and very muscular; the shoulder-blade light ; shoulder full and soft ; brisket and loins large ; hips well developed, and on a level with the chine ; hind quarters long and well filled in ; buttocks on a level with the back, neither falling olf nor raised above the hind quarters; tail slender, well set on ; hair fine and soft ; body round and full ; carcass deep and well formed, or cylindrical ; bone small ; thigh short and well made ; legs short and straight, and slender below the knee ; as handlers very excel- lent, especially mellow to the touch on the back, the shoulder, and along the sides, the skin being soft, flexible, of medium thickness, rolling on the neck and the hips ; hair bright ; face almost bare, whicii is characteristic of pure- bred Ilercfords. They belong to the middle-horned division of the cattle of Great Britain, to which tliey are indigenous."

Tliere are individual good milkers among the Ilerefords, as there are among the Durhams, but like them, we must say they are better for beef than milk. "We certainly never should select the Ilereford breed for dairy purposes. The form of the cow, as represented among the specimens we have seen of the best herds in this countiy, is that of a beef-producing ani- mal, or a breed for good working oxen, for which it is noted.

53. The Devon Cow. — "This beautiful race of cattle dates farther back than any well-established breed among us. It goes generally under the simple name of Devon ; but the cattle of the southern part of the county, from which the race derives its name, differ somewhat from those of the northern, having a larger and coarser frame, and far less tendency to fatten, though their dairy qualities are superior.

" The Korth Devons are remarkable for hardihood, symmetry, and beauty, and are generally bred for work and for beef rather than for the dairy. The head is fine and well set on ; the horns of medium lengtli, generally curved ; color usually bright blood-red, but sometimes inclining to yellow ; skin thin and orange-yellow ; hair of medium length, soft, and silky, making

Seo. 3.] COWS— BEEEDS COMPARED. 47

the animals remarkable fine handlers ; muzzle of the nose white; eyes full and mild ; ears yellowish, or orange-color inside, of moderate size ; neck rather long, with little dewlap ; shoulders oblique ; legs small and straight, and feet in proportion ; chest of good width ; ribs round and expanded ; loins of first-rate quality, long, wide, and fleshy ; hips round, of medium width ; rumj) level ; tail full near the setting on, tapering to the tip ; thighs of the bull and ox muscular and full, and high in the flank, though in the cow sometimes thought to be too'light; the size medium, generally called small.

" As milkers, they do not excel, perhaps they may be said not to equal, the other breeds, and they have a reputation of being decidedly below the average. In their native country the general average of a dairy is one pound of butter per day during the summer.

" Tliey are bred for beef and for work, and not for the dairy, and their yield of milk is small, though of a rich quality.

" On the whole, whatever may be our judgment of this breed, the faults of the North Devon cow can hardly be overlooked from our present point of view. The rotundity of form and compactness of frame, though they contribute to her remarkable beauty, constitute an objection to her as a dairy cow, since it is generally thought that the peculiarity of form which disposes an animal to take on fat is somewhat incompatible with good milking quali- ties, and hence Youatt says: 'For the dairy, the North Devons must be acknowledged to be inferior to several other breeds. The milk is good, and yields more than the average proportion of cream and butter; but it is deficient in quantity.' He also maintains that the value of this breed for milk could not be improved without probable or certain detriment to its grazing qualities.

"But the fairest test of its fitness for the dairy is to be found in the estimation in which distinguished Devon breeders themselves have held it in this respect. A scale of points of excellence in this breed was established some time ago by the best judges in England ; and it has since been adopted, with but slight changes, in this country. These judges, naturally prejudiced in favor of the breed, if prejudiced at all, made this scale to embrace one hundred points, no animal to be regarded as perfect unless it excelled in all of them. Each part of the body was assigned its real value in the scale: a faultless head, for instance, was estimated at four ; a deep, round chest at fifteen, etc. If the animal was defective in any part, the number of i)oints which represented the value of that part in the scale was to be deducted ^ro rata from the hundred, in determining its merits. But in this scale the cow is so lightly esteemed for the dairy, that the udder, the size and shape of which is of the utmost consequence in determining the capacity of the milch cow, is set down as worth only one point, while, in the same scale, the horns and ears are valued at two points each, and the color of the nose and the expression of the eye are valued at four points each. Supposing, therefore, that each of these points was valued at one dollar, and a perfect North

48 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.

Devon co^v was valued at one luindred dollars; then anotlier cow of the same blood, and equal to the first in every respect, except in her udder, which is such as to make it certain that she can never be capable of giving milk enough to nourish her calf, must be worth, according to tiie estimation of the best Devon breeders, jiinet\--nine dollars ! It is safe, therefore, to say that an animal whose udder and lacteal glands are regarded, by those who best know her capacities and her merits, as of only one quarter part as much consequence as the color of her nose, or half as much as the shape and size of her horns, can not be recommended for the dairy. The improved Xor.h Devon cow may be classed, in this respect, with the Hereford, neither of which have well-developed milk-vessels — a point of the utmost consequence to the practical dairyman."

5i. The 3Iilk-5Iirrori — Tliis is a term given in the Guenon method of selecting good cows, to the escutcheon formed by the change of direction in the hair on the rear part of the udder and parts adjacent. If this n'.irror is large, it is supposed to indicate a good milker. For the better understanding of it, we recommend a careful study of the " milk-mirror," and see how it is generally developed upon all real good milkers — that is, good for quantity rather than quality.

"Milk-mirrors vary in position, extent, and the figure they represent. They may be divided, according to their position, into mirroi-s or escutcheons, jiroperly so called, or into lower and upper tufts, or escutcheons. The latter are very small in comparison with the former, and are situated in close ]>roximity to the vulva, as seen in difierent breeds of cows. They are very common on cows of bad milking races, but are verj- rarely seen on the best milch cows. They consist of one or two ovals, or small bands of up-growing hair, and serve to indicate the continuance of the flow of milk. The period is short in proportion as the tufts are large. They must not be confounded with the escutcheon proper, which is often extended up to the vulva. They arc separated from it by bands of hair, more or less large, as you will find from careful examination."

It requires some skill to determine the exact size of a milk-mirror, since it is not equally m'cII defined in all cows, being at first sight apparently large in some, which, upon close examination, will show faults — that is, that tlie escutcheon of out-growing hairs is broken by tufts of down-growing hairs. Mr. Flint says:

" We often find cows whose milk-mirror at first sight appears very large, but which arc only medium milkers ; and it will usually be found that lateral indentations greatly diminish the surface of up-growing hair. Many errors ■ are committed in estimating the value of such cows, from a want of attention to the real extent of the milk-mirror.

" All the interruptions in the surface of the mirror indicate a diminution of the quantity of milk, with the exception, however, of small oval or elliptical plates, which are found in the mirror, on the back part of the udders of the best cows.

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PLATE V.

(Page 48.)

Tins is a very instructive picture to every young farmer, and there are a good many old ones who may make of it a vahiable study. Many persons are not aware that the age of a suckling calf, week by week, can be told by examining the teeth. Look at these drawings and see how easy it is to learn the art — an art which every farmer's boy should undei'stand. So the age of a cow, as well as a horse, can be told from year to year, by looking at the teeth, more cer- tainly than by the horns. For this purpose this plate possesses great value ; but it has a greater one in the illustration of what is now well known as the "milk mirror," which is described at ^ 54, and much more fully in Guenon's work, from which the theory is derived. In this plate the mirror is represented by coloring the pic- ture so as to show the field of upturned hair around the udder in its most fully developed form upon No. 1, and quite defective in No. 4. By studying these, and comparing them with living cows, something of the theory may be learned. It is very fully illustrated in Flint's work upon milch cows and dairy farming. It is .a subject worthy of the attention of all farmers.

Sko. 8.] COWS— THE MILK-MIRROR. 49

In a fat cow, with an inflated udder, the mirror would appear larger than it really is ; while in a lean cow, with a loose and wrinkled udder, it .appears smaller. Fat will cover faults ; this is a fact to be kept in mind in selecting a cow ; because good fatting qualities are not the qualities which the purchaser is desirous of obtaining.

" These marks, though often seen on many good cows, should be considered as certain only when the veins of the perineum form, under the skin, a kind of net-work, which, without being very apparent, may be felt by a pressure on them, when the milk-veins on the belly are well developed, though less knotted and less prominent than in cows of the first class ; in fine, when tlie udder is well developed, and presents veins which are sufficiently numerous, though not very large.

" There are cases where a knowledge and careful examination of the form and size of the mirror becomes of the greatest importance. It is well known that certain signs or marks of great milkers are developed only as the capacities of tlie animal herself are fully and completely developed by age. The milk-veins, for instance, are never so large and prominent in heifers and young cows as in old ones, and the same may be said of the udder, and the veins of the udder and perineum, all of which it is of great importance to observe in the selection of milch cows. Those signs, then, which in cows arrived at maturity are almost sufiicient in themselves to warrant a conclu- sion as to their merits as milkers, are, to a great extent, wanting in younger animals, and altogether in calves, of which there is often doubt whether they shall be raised ; and here a knowledge of the form of the mirror is'^f immense advantage, since it gives, at the outset, and before any expense is incurred, a somewhat reliable means of judging of the future milking capacities of the animal, or, if a male, of the probability of his transmitting milking qualities to his oflFspring."

55. What Kind of Cows to Buy.-^' In buying dairy stock, tlie farmer gen- erally finds it for his interest to select young heifers. Tliey give the promise of longer usefulness. But it is often the case that older cows are selected, with the design of using them for the dairy for a limited period, and then feeding them for the butcher. In either case, it is advisable, as a rule, to choose animals in low or medium condition. The farmer can not ordinarily afibrd to buy fat; it is more properly his business to make it and to have it to sell. Good and well-marked cows, in poor condition, will rapidly gain in all flesli products when removed to better pastures and higher keeping, and they cost less in the original purchase."

56. General Conclusions. — We have now devoted all the space that we can afibrd to the subject of cows. We have given them a large share of our attention, because we consider them of more importance than any other single branch of our domestic animals.- They not only furnish a great amount of food, in milk, cream, butter, cheese, and meat, when done fur- nishing milk, but they are the foundation of prosperity in American farming. " A good cow may produce a bad calf," but it is only a may-be — it does not

50 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.

hold as a rule. It is therefore very important to select good cows, and keep none but good cows — certainly never breed from a poor one.

We shall now give some important facts relative to other branches of neat stock. And first we refer the reader to the following facts concerning bulls of various breeds.

57. The Ayrshire Bull. — In comparing this with those of other breeds, it should be borne in mind that the Ayrshircs are not bred for beef, in their own country, as much as they are for dairy purposes. For working oxen, they are of fair quality, but not the best. For feeding purposes, they should be crossed with Durhams.

" It is the opinion of good breeders, that a high-bred short-horn bull and a large-sized Ayrshire cow will produce a calf which will come to maturity earlier, and attain greater weight, and sell for more money, than a pure-bred Ayrshire. This cross, with feeding from tlie start, may be sold fat at two or three years old, the improvement being especially seen in the earlier matu- rity and the size."

58. The Jersey Bull. — So far as beauty is concerned in the sexes, the males of the Jersey or Alderney stock have the largest share. It is a somewhat curious physiological fact, that the Alderney cows in this country produce two or three times as many bulls as heifers, so that bulls can gener- ally be purchased at lower prices than cows.

"The bulls are usually very different iu character and disposition from the cows, and are much inclined to become restive and cross at the age of tmee or four years, unless their treatment is uniformly gentle and firm. In all portraits of Jersey bulls, they are represented as handsomer animals than they are generally considered by American farmers.

59. Short-horn or Durham Bull. — Tliis breed has been more largely imported and bred from in the United States than any, in fact all, othere. It is the great beef-producing breed o^ the West, particularly in Ohio and Kentucky.

" The desirable characteristics of the short-horn bull may be summed up, according to the judgment of the best breeders, as follows: He should have a short but fine head, very broad across the eyes, tapering to the nose, with a nostril full and prominent; the nose itself should be of a rich flesh-color; eyes bright and mild ; ears somewhat large and thin ; horns slightly curved and rather flat, well set on a long, broad, muscular neck ; chest wide, deep, and projecting; shoulders fine, oblique, well formed into the chine; fore legs short, with upper arm large and powerful ; barrel round, deep, well ribbed liome ; hips wide and level ; back straight from the withers to the setting on of the tail, but short from hip to chine ; skin soft and velvety to the touch ; moderately thick hair, plentiful, soft, and mossy."

This picture gives only a fair impression of the fine form of the best animals of this breed.

CO. The Dutch Bull. — The form of Dutch and Durham bulls is not unlike. W. W. Chenery, of Watertown, Mass., whose name has since become famous

Seo. 4.]

BEEVES.

51

as being identified with the alarming cattle disease prevailing iu Massachu- setts in the summer of 1860, is one of the largest importers of the valuable stock known as the Dutch breed.

61, The Hereford Bull.— This always fairly represents this good breed of cattle. Good, at least, for beef, and excellent for working oxen. Their beef rates highest of all in the London market, and the few grades which have been brought to New York have been higlily esteemed. The objection to them is, that they do not come so early to maturity, or, rather, to a salable condition, as the Durhams. The breeders of Herefords contend that the keeping that will starve Durhams will keep the Herefords in a thriving condition.

62. The Devon Bull. — In color and form a Devon bull is perfect ; always of a pure bay-red color, of medium size, and progenitor of the handsomest working oxen in America. The deficiency in size of the pure Devons, for working oxen, is made up by crossing upon larger animals. These grade oxen make as fine beef as any brought to the New York market.

SECTION IV.-BEEVES. \

ross and Net Weight of Beef Cattle. — ^The ordinary rule of ascertaining the net weight of beef cattle from the live weight on the scales varies, accord- ing to quality, size, and age, and after all, is no rule at all, because it is entirely a matter of agreement between the parties at the time.

It also depends upon the locality. In New York, the net weight of the beef in the quartere only is wanted. In Boston, the hide and fat are included, counting those products equal to one quarter of the beef, or, rather, calling the whole five quarters. Tliere the net weight of a fat bullock is estimated at 60 to 68 lbs. of each 100 of live weight. In extra fine animals the per-centage is higher. In New York, where the hide and fat are left out of the calculation, the bullocks are estimated at 55 to 60 lbs. net to each 100 lbs. gross; and if the animal is very fine, the estimate runs from 61 to 61 lbs. net to each 100 lbs. gross. Extraordinary animals sometimes dress 65 or 66 lbs., and even higher, and ordinary and lean stock run from 55 down to 47 lbs., though not often below 50 lbs., or one half the live weight at home. The common practice at the "West is, to weigh fatted cattle some hours after feeding and a little exercise, and calculate the net weight at 55 lbs. per 100 of the live weight.

52 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.

64. The Lai^est Bollock— The Great Massachnsetts Steer.— The question of " what is the greatest weiglit of any bullock ?" we definitely answer and place on record in the following notices. The heaviest alive and dead was sold by John Sanderson, of Bernardstown, Mass., in February, 1S62, to Bryan Lawrence, butcher, Centre Market, New York, by whom he was publicly exhibited, killed, and weighed. His live weight "at home was 36 cwt. Here, when very empty, 33 cwt. His dead weight was, fore quarters, 743, 732—1,475 lbs. Hind quarters, 496, 502—993 lbs. Total, 2,473 lbs., after shrinking a week. This is within 2 lbs. of 75 per cent, of live weight. This steer liad been kept in a small yard and stable, eating meal and hay two years ; was eight years old ; a cross of Durham and native Vermont stock. He girted back of shoulders, 10 ft. 8 in. ; forward of liips, 11 ft. 8 in. ; hight, 6 ft. 3 in. ; length from horns to tail, 9 ft. 8 in. ; breadth across hips, 3 ft. 6 in. Tliis is the largest bullock of which we have any certain record. TVe also place upon record the weights of several other remarkable large bullocks. All stories of bullocks of 40 cwt. we disbelieve.

65. The Washington Ox. — Tlie ox George "Washington was 5 years, 9 months, and 14 days old when slaughtered, in the year 1840.

His live weight was 3,204 lbs.

Weight of one fore quarter 612 "

Weight of the other fore quarter 698 "

Weight of one hind quarter 487 "

Weight of the other hind quarter 477 "

2,174 lbs. of beef — 70 llis. per cwt. of lire weight.

Measurement from button to root of tail 9 fl. 7 in.

Girth 10 " 4 "

Hight 5 " 9 "

From hip to hip 2 '• 9 "

The ox Red Jacket, killed March 5, 1851,

Weighed alive 3,080 lbs.

Weight of meat '. 2,114 "

Lota, 31 per cent.

The OX John Hancock, killed the same time,

Weighed alive 2,910n«.

Weight of meat 1,946J "

Loss, 33 per cent.

Robert L. Pell's two-year-old heifer, fatted at Pellham Farm, 30 miles up

the Hudson,

Weighed alive 2,000 lbs.

Weight of beef 1,380 "

Loss, 31 per cent.

66. A Big Ox in Olden Time. — "We print, as we find it, the following extract from " Thacher's Military Journal of the Revolution," under date of June 24, 1779:

" I have just had the satisfaction, with a number of gentlemen, of viewing a remarkably large /"at ox, which has been presented by some gentlemen in Connecticut to his Excellenc_v, Gen. "Washington. He is 6 ff. 7 in. high, and weighs on tlie hoof 3,500 lbs., the largest animal T ever beheld."

67. The Ox Leopard. — ^An ox called "Leopard," raised and fed by Dr.

1 !

Sbo. 4.] BEEVES OF GREAT WEIGHT. 53

"Win. Elmer, of Bridgton, N. J., was slaughtered, Feb. 24, 1832, at the age

of 6 years and 8 months. His live weight was 3,360 lbs. Size — length from

nose to rump, 10 ft. 6 in. ; from nose to end of tail, 15 ft. ; girth behind fore

shoulders, 9 ft. 8 in. ; around the body, 10 ft. 9 in. ; around the brisket, 10 ft.

3 in. ; length from shoulder to rump, 7 ft. ; along the back from liorns, 9 ft. ;

width across the hip, 2 ft. lOi in. ; hight of fore shoulder, 5 ft. 6 in. ; behind,

5 ft. 8 in. ; circumference of leg below the knee, 1 foot.

68. Two Big Oxen in Pennsylvania. — We have a letter from James Stewart,

Pennsylvania, and another from Andrew M. Frantz, giving the weight of

two bullocks heavier than the Washington. One known as the " Lancaster

County Ox," Mr. Stewart writes, " was owned and fed by Emanuel Landis,

near this city ; was a lialf-bred Durham, deep red, large fore quarters, long,

fine horns, and was over seven years old. Wm. F. Miller, of Lancaster,

purdiased him for $800, and slaughtered him on the 22d of February, 1858.

This ox weighed :

Live weight 3,387 lbs.

Net weight 2,409 "

Weight of one fore quarter 747 lbs.

Weight of the other fore quarter 760 "

Weight of one hind quarter 469 "

Weight of the other hind quarter 442 "

2,418 lbs.

Deduct weight of hooks for weighing 9

Total net weight 2,409 lbs.

" The Berks Ckiunty ox, that was butchered some years ago in Philadelpliia,

weighed as follows :

live weight. 3,350 lbs.

Net weight ,... 2,388 "

Weight of one fore quarter 7321bB.

Weight of the other fore quarter 728 "

Weight of one hind quarter 464 "

Weight of the other hind quurter 464 "

Total net weight 2,338 lbs.

"There has long been a generous rivalry between the farmers of Berks and Lancaster counties in regard to which could grow the fattest and largest oxen. As it now stands, Lancaster is ahead, but we may look out for some- thing ere long greater still from Old JSerJcs, for the resources of that county are astonishing, as even politicians can testify.

"There was another steer butchered in this city, in February, 1856, by David Killinger, owned and fed by Abram Landis, of Manheim township, that netted 2,108 lbs., but that weight, and greater, has been frequently attained in this State, and even in this county. The first two (whose weights I liave given) I will not say are the largest cattle ever slaughtered, even in Pennsylvania, but they are the largest that have ever come under my obser- vation, and in regard to whose weight there was no dispute. I, however, entirely concur with the writer in the Tribune, that there never was an ox fed to the weight of 4,000 lbs. gross. An animal that will weigh 613 lbs. more than the one butchered in this city in February last, has certainly never been yet produced."

54 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.

Mr. Frantz sajs the Berks County ox was fed by a man named Soetz, and was slaughtered, he thinks, in 18i6. If so, his weight should have been known here and remembered, but it was not by one of the butchers and others that we thought likely to know, of the many of whom we sought information. We liavo often heard of heavier bullocks, but lack the proof, as in the case below. The above figures are now matters of record, where they can be referred to in future.

69. The Saratoi^a Bis Bullock» — Since writing the above, we see the fol- lowing in the Country Gentlcvian of May 27, 1860 :

" The Saratoga County Fres& says that J. M. Cole, of Saratoga Springs, slaughtered an ox, in 1817, whose live weight was 3,520 lbs. ; dressed, 2,567 lbs."

Let Mr. Cole give us the vouchers. If he has made an ox of that weight, he has probably beaten the world, and shoidd give the world the proof. It wants to know certaiidy the weight of tlie heaviest bullock.

70. Weights of the Crystal Palace Show Cattle.— The following are the net weights of the nine head of fat bullocks, exhibited as a show at the Crystal Palace. Some of them were full-blood Kontuck}' and Ohio Durhams, and others, grades of that bloofl. They were bought by Jim Irving, of Washing- ton Market, and fairly weiglied as follows:

Tlie best pair weighed — one, 2,178 lbs. — and his quarters, 60-1 and 612 lbs. for the fore quarters, and 480 and 482 lbs. for the hind quarters. Tlie other weighed 2,066 lbs.— the fore quarters 570 and 568 lbs., and the hind ones 470 and 458 lbs.

Another pair weighed together 3,680 lbs. The old cow, which was excessively fat, weighed 1,460 lbs., dressing, it is said, 73 lbs. per cwt. Tlie best steer dressed 72ilb6. per cwt. The other four head weighed 2,024, 2,003, 1,930, and 1,860 lbs.

Forty head of Illinois grade Durhams, five and six years old, sold in 1858, in the New York market, averaged 22 cwt. each alive, and one hundred head averaged over 20 cwt. each.

71. The liaxtun Steei". — The Ilaxtun steer was raised by E. Ilaxtun, in Beekman Township, Dntcliess Co., N. Y. lie was out of a cow bought from a drove that came from near Cleveland, Oliio, which was probably three fourths Durham, and a full-bred short-horn bull, of Mr. Sheaf's (Dutchess County) importation. The steer was called jfths Durham, part of the blood appearing to indicate a descent from the long-horn of the old Kentucky importation. Ilis color was nearly all red, having some whitish roan spots, and he was, notwithstanding his great size and fatness, one of the liaud- somest-formed fat bullocks we have ever seen, and as firm on his legs almost as he ever was, and was in appearance as fresh and healthy as ever, taking his rations regularly. His feed was 14 quarts a day of meal, made of two parts Indian corn and one part oats, and as much hay as he would eat. His feeding commenced in the fall, after he was four yeai-s old, and he was seven years old the spring before he was killed. Ilis weight at home, Dec. 1, 1859, was

Seo. 4.] BEEVES OF GREAT WEIGHT. 55

3,472 lbs. He was probably weighed full at that time ; bnt after a railroad passage of 75 miles, he was weighed here, Jan. 9, 1860, before he was filled up with food and water, and his fair, honest weight, as given by David Allerton, who weigiicd him, was 3,452 lbs. Three days afterward, weighed upon the same scales, by the same man, with scales carefully balanced, he weighed 3.418 lbs. Afterward, upon two other scales, his weight was 3,419. He was sold Jan. 10, 1860, to Wm. Lalor, of Centre Market, for $850 ; and was slaughtered and dressed at Pattei'son's slaughter-house, Jan. 19, by the same man who dressed the Washington, and hung until Jan. 26, when the quarters were weighed, under the careful supervision of Barney Bartram, John Harris, John M. Seaman, and James L. Stewart, and in the presence of a large company of lookers-on, many of whom were considerably interested, having invested largely in the way of bets upon the net weight.

The following was the result: fore quarters, 700 and 668 lbs. — 1, 368 lbs. ; the hind quarters, 482 and 469 lbs.— 951 lbs. ; total, 2,319 lbs. This was 2| lbs. over 67j lbs. per cwt. of the last live weight. The shrinkage was esti- mated at 50 lbs. ; but he was hung just the same length of time as the Washington, and, like him, has had his hide stuffed and form preserved, being, up to that time, the largest bullock ever brought to New York. The fatting of this steer has been one of the most perfectly successful experiments to produce a monstrous animal, so evenly formed and faultlessly shaped, that no one could say where he could be improved.

72. Other Large Bullocks.— A pair of oxen, called the " Cayuga Prize Oxen," was also sold in the New York market, the same week, for $700, wliicli was considered remarkable ; their live weight, however, was 2,865 lbs. each ; they were six years old.

The Michigan Farmer of Jan. 20, 1860, says : " We lately gave an account of several fat cattle which were killed in tliis city on the week before the New Year. The pair weiglied 6,437 lbs., or 3,218 lbs. each. The net weiglit was estimated at 68 lbs. per cwt." Of some others the Farmer said: "The actual yield of the cattle killed by William Smith, in this market, was &Q lbs. to the 100 lbs. of live weight, or 2,150 lbs. from 3,218 lbs. It will be seen by this, therefore, how those great oxen killed in the Detroit market approximated to what is considered the largest and fattest animal ever killed in the United States."

We have a letter before us from Isaac Hubbard, of Claremont, N. H., who is ninety years old, but not too old to read with interest the accounts of these fat bullocks. He says that, seeing an account of the Haxtun steer, which interested him very much, induced him to give the history of a fat bullock fed by him twenty odd years ago.

The calf was dropped Jan. 4, 1833, and was then estimated to weigh 100 lbs.; Jan. 4, 1833, he weighed 874 lbs. ; Dec. 3, 1833, 1,280 lbs. ; Jan. 5, 1835, 1,800 lbs. ; Dec. 26, 1835, 2,350 lbs.; Feb. 15, 1837, 2,910 lbs.

In Oct., 1838, Mr. H. sold him, and he was conveyed to Hartford, Conn., and weighed 3,370 lbs. This steer was bought by Paran Stevens, since of

56

DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

[Chap. I.

great hotel notoriety, and was extensively exhibited in this country ae " the largest ox ever seen." Perhaps some persons in this State may remember the exhibition of this mammoth ox.

In 1840, this great show animal was sent to England for exhibition there, and, it is said, attracted much attention. From there he was taken to France and Belgium, and exhibited as the great bullock of the world. He was brought back to England and slaughtered, but his weight at the time, either alive or dead, was not published, but it was less in this country than tiiat of several whose \reights we have published. This is one of the great 6liow bullocks which have been exhibited and advertised as weighing over 4,000 lbs., a weight that never has, so far as we have any satisfactory records, yet been attained ; and although we believe that 4,000 lbs. is above the limit that can be attained by one of the bovine race, we would not discourage the efforts of those who have made noble attempts to improve this class of livestock, both in form and quality, and who will not be content until the utmost possible limit of weight is accomplished.

The name of Mr. Hubbard's steer was " Olympus," in this country, but in Europe he was exhibited imder the name of " Brother Jonathan." He was of the " native stock," common in New Hampshire ; his color a dapple-bay or red, a little changeable in the sun, with white spots on the face and legs.

It is not, however, generally profitable to feed such great bullqcks as we liave noticed ; but, to see what has been done, it will always be an interest- ing matter of reference. So will be the matter we shall give in the next section.

SECTION V-STATISTICS OF THE NEW YORK CATTLE JilARKET,

umbers of Bntchers' Animals Annually Sold in New Torkt — Farmers are very justly accused of a neglect of statistical information in relation to the business upon which all their prosperity depends. In the very important matter of furnishing the cities with bullocks, the producers had no means of forming estimates of the needed supply, until we instituted reports of the cattle markets of all the prin- cipal cities, and particularly the city of New York, wliich is an enormous consumer of fresh beef. To this market we have devoted many years, attending almost every weekly market, and have given tiie farmers statis- tical tables of immense value to tliem. We now embody some of this useful statistical information, can stand as a table of permanent reference; and we earnestly it to all who are engaged in agricultural pursuits.

where it commend

Seo. 5.] STATISTICS OF THE NEW YORK CATTLE MARKET. 57

ANNUAL RECEIPTS FOR TEN TEARS — 1854-1863.

Tears. Beeves. tows. Calves. Sheep. Bwine. Ann. Totals.

18.54 169 864.... 13,131.... 68,584.... 555,479.... 252,328.... 1,059,386

1855 185564.... 12,110... 47,969.... 588,741.... 318,107.... 1,152,491

1856 187 057 . 12,857.... 43,081.... 462,739.... 345,911.... 1,051,645

1857 162,243 ... 12,840.... 34,218.... 444,036.... 288,984.... 942,321

1858 . 191874.... 10,128.... 37,675.... 447,445.... 551,479.... 1,238,601

1859 . 205,272.... 9,492.... 48,769.... 404,894.... 399,665.... 1,068,092 1860 226,933.... 7,144.... 39,436.... 518,750.... 323,918.... l,llli,181

1861 222,835.... 5,749... 32,868.... 512,366.... 559,421.... 1,333,239

1862 239,486.... 5,378... 30,465.... 484,342. ... 1,148,209. .. . 1,907,880

1863 264,091.... 6,470.... 35,709.... 519,316. ... 1,101,617. .. . 1,927,203

Total 2,055,219. . . . 95,299. . . . 418,774. . . . 4,938,108. . . . 5,289,639. . . . 12,797,039

Av. pr. year . . . 205,522.... 9,530.... 41,877.... 493,811.... 528,964.... 1,279,704

WEEKLY AVERAGE OF ALL ANIMALS FOR TE.N TEARS — 1854-1863.

Tears. Beeves. Cows. Calves. Sheep. Swine. Totai.

1854 3,257 253 1,315 10,682 4,852 20,369

1855 3,565 233 922 11,322 6,117 22,069

1856 3,597 247 828 8,898 6,650 20,224

1857 3,120 245 658 8,539 6,557 18,119

1858 3,680 195 724 8,604 10,605 28,809

1859 3,947 182 841 9,709 7,686 22,365

1860 4,364 139 758 9,976 7,229 21,465

1861 4,285 no 632 9,853 10,758 25,637

1862 4,518 101 574 9,138 21,664 36,000

1863 5,079 125 687 9,987 21,185 37,062

The increase of bullocks in this decade is 55 per cent. Cows have fallen off more than half, and calves nearly the same. The supply of sheep remains nearly stationary, but swine have increased enormously. The fol- lowing is the estimated number of pounds of meat, derived from slaughtered animals in 1863, and the wholesale value. In the estimate, cows are added to the bullocks, because tlie most of them, eventually, go to the butcher.

Beeves— 270,561, av. 700 lbs. uet 189,392,700 lbs. at 9jc. per lb. net S17,513,821 75

Veal— 35,709 calves at 75 lbs 2,678,176 " at 10c. per lb. net 267,817 50

Sheep and lambs— 519,316, at 42 lbs.... 21,811,272 " atlOc.perlb.net 2,181,127 20

Swine— 1,101,617, at 150 lbs 105,242,550 " at 6^c. per lb. net 10,740,765 75

Total 379,124,697 lbs $30,708,535 20

It is also very important for farmers to know where the supply comes from. Of 210,384 bullocks sold in 1803, the si.x following States furnished the respective numbers, viz. : Illinois, 118,692 ; New York, 28,985 ; Ohio, 19,269; Indiana, 1-1,232; Michigan, 9,074; Kentucky, 0,782. As the same proportion holds good for all the cattle received in New York, it will be soen that Illinois furnishes 56i per cent. True, a good many credited to that State come from Iowa, Missouri, and other States.

The proportion of hogs from Illinois is probably greater than upon beef cattle. The great bulk of pork from the hogs slaughtered here is packed and sent to other places for consumi:)iion ; large quantities of it to Eurojic. A small portion of the beef is packed and sent abroad. The great bulk of it, and all the veal and nearly all of the sheep, and a vast quantity besides that comes in ready dressed from the country, goes to furnish fresh meat to the cities of New York and Brooklyn, three small cities in New Jersey, and several towns within fifty miles, ships in port, and most of our armed ships and forts and soldiers on the coast between Hampton Roads and Key West.

58 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.

Estimated average price of beef cattle per net pound each year, 185-1—63 : 1854, 0 cents full; 1855, 10 cents; 1S56, 9i cents nearly; 1857, lOi cents nearly; 1858, Si cents nearly; 1859, 9 cents; 1860, 8 cents full ; 1861, 7 J cents; 1862, 7§ cents ; 1863, 9i cents. Up to March, 186-1, prices liave ranged troiii 9 to 16 cents a pound net, which was higher than before since 1857.

During 1863, the live-weight price of corn-fed hogs ranged from -1 to 7 cents per pound. In February, 1864, it reached 8^ and 9 cents per pound, which was tlie highest price for "Western stock ever attained.

That all who read this page may see what an immense interest is involved in the live-stock trade of the country with New York city, we add the fol- lowing calculation of number of pounds of meat and estimated value:

cossrjm-iox or ten teah-s — 1854-1863, Beeves— 2,160.518 hc.^ av. 700 lbs. net. ..1,505.302,600 lbs. at 9 cents per lb. net. . $135,482,034

Calves— 418,7(4 head av. 75 lbs. net 3I,40K,050 " atlOcentspcrlb.net.. 3.140,8(15

SbeepandlanibB-^,938,108hea(lav.421bs. 207,390,530 '■ atlOcentspcrlb.net.. 20,73y,li:):i Swine— 5,289,0.39 head av. 125 lbs 001,204,800 " at Ccentsperlb.net.. 39,672,2«8

Total 2,400,305,980 lbs $199,034,7|;0

Average per annum for the ten years 240,530,598 " 19,903, 173

Farmers, look at these figures. They teach you an important lesson ; one well worthy of being placed upon this permanent record, to remind you and your children of the great importance of the live-stock interest of the country. You sec by the tables the rapid increase of the trade, and the enormous sum that it amounts to in ten years. Lest you should be confused by the sum in numerical figures, let us repeat it in words. Two billions four hundred and five millions three hundred and sixty-five thousand nine hundred and eighty-six pounds of meat, amounting to one hundred and ninety-nine millions thirty-four thousand seven hundred and eighty dollars. This is the sum that New York city has disbursed to the farming interest for fen years' supply of meat, derived frojn the slaughter of twelve millions seven hundred and ninety-seven thousand and thirty-nine animals.

These statistics enable us to realize the vast resources of America. T!ie country is now feeding a million of men in the army, fighting for freedom, full rations of meat, and sending nearly two millions a year of animals to the city shambles of New York, for which the city is sending back to the country twentj^ millions of dollars.

This is the greatest meat-eating country in the world ; it produces all that it consumes and a great surplus to send abroad.

74. Cattle Transportation.— Nearly all the stock sold in the New York market is transported upon railway cars. "We assume that the beeves for ten years' supply have paid a tariff of $10 a head average to railroads, making the sum of $21,505,180; calves at fifty cents a head, $209,387; sheep at seventy-five cents, $3,703,681 ; hogs at $1 25 each, $6,612,048. Total $32,030,296, as the estimated amount paid for the transportation of animals butchered in New York for ten years.

Improvement is needed in transportation. Animals arc forced to stand without food or water two or three days, or as long as their tired legs will

Seo. 5.]

STATISTICS OF THE WEW YORK CATTLE MARKET.

59

sustain them, and when they fail, as sometimes they do, the fainting creature falls and is trampled to death.

We must have an improvement in cattle-cars. It certainly would not be difficult to construct them so that cattle should stand with heads to one side, where water could be given them in a trough by means of hose ; and if this can not be done, it must be made a criminal oifense to keep the animals on a car more than 30 hours without water. In fact, it would be better for all parties if the number were limited that a car should contain, and that in no case should the stock remain on the cars over 30 hours, without being unloaded, rested, fed, and watered. Tlie present practice is a loss to owners and an injury to consumers, by making the beasts feverish and unhealthy, besides being an outrageous act of cruelty to animals. The whole commu- nity is interested, and should cry out against the wicked practice, which is enough to make humanity shudder.

75. Comparative Measurements of CattlCi — Inquiries are often made in regard to the relative size of diiferent breeds of cattle. It is not easy to give a very definite answer to questions of this kind ; but as several of the leading breeds of this country were derived from England, where they are bred in greater numbers than they are here, an idea of their comparative size may be had from certain measurements taken of prize animals at the English shows. We give the following tables in reference to Short-horns, Herefords, and Devons, which toolj prizes at the shows ,of the Royal Agricultural Society, in 1858 and 1859. The first was prepared for the Society by Mr. Robert Smith.

CLASS. Avel

Short HORKa. j rs

Aged bulls 4

Yearling bulls 1

Bull calves

Cows 3

Two-year-old heifeiB.2 Yearlings 1

Heretobds.

Aged bulls 4

Yearling bulls 1

Bull calves

10

^

5i

CLASS. Averi

Hehefoeds. yra-

Cows 7

Two-year-old heifers. 2 Yearlings 1

Average Girth.

Devons.

Aged bulls 3 6 7 5

YearUng bulls 1 -6^ 6 2

Bull calves 8| 5 2

5 8 3 Cows 6 2i 6 Dj

104 7 0} Two-year-old heifers. 2 6 € 10

lOJ 5 ll| Yearlings 1 7} 6 1

The next table was furnished by Mr. Thos. Duckhara, the editor of the "Herd-Book of Hereford Cattle." As far as it goes, it comprises measure- ments of Short-horns and Herefords, which received prizes at the Warwick show that year, the rank of the awards having been according to the order observed in the table.

CLASS. Averi

Shoet-hokss. ys-

Aged bulls 4

4

Yearling bulls.

Bull calves

Cows 4

Average Girth.

CLASS. Averag

Herefof.ds. }■"•

AgedbuUs 2

" 4«

4

9i lOJ 0'

Yearling buUs . Bull calves . . . ,

Cows.

Average Girth.

60

DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

[Chap. I.

76. The Improvement in Breeds and Weig^hts or Cattle. — What has raised the average weight of beef cattle from 500 to 800 lbs., and some individuals up to 3,600lbs. ? "What has raised the crops of corn to double their former yield, and in several instances produced over 190 bushels of corn to>the acre — that was in Kentucky ; but in the State of !New York whole lields have averaged 100 bushels. In Connecticut, 13i bushels of ears of corn have been I)roduced upon half an acre, at an expense for culture and harvest of less than $3. What lias induced men to root up old orchards of natural fruit, " five to the pint," and plant pippins, bald wins, greenings, russets, etc., some of which have been sold from $8 to $20 a barrel, and retailed at a guinea a dozen? What has induced ingenious men to devote the best energies of their minds to inventing plows, harrows, drills, reaping-machines, and every other implement of husbandry, while every class of domestic animals has also been improved — neat cattle probably the most of all?

The answer is, the publication of just such facts as we are now giving, which tend to show what has been done by some men, and may be done by others. This encourasres us to continue our labor.

SECTION VI.-FEEDING CATTLE AND CARE OF FARM-STOCK.

electing Calves for Rearing. — Use judgment in selecting such heifer calves as are to be reared. Select only those whose mothers are good milkers, and whose sires have come from good milking stock ; at the same time, the calf itself should have characteristics that indicate an aptitude to develop good milking qualities, viz. : small, fine head, ratlier long in the muzzle; bright eyes; tliin, tapering neck; small, well-shaped legs ; long body ; large hind quarters, set wide behind ; soft skin ; tine hair — the color of which is immate- rial ; and, above all, the milk-mirror or udder veins should be large and well developed.

The raising of bull calves for breeders had better be left to those who have time and means to devote their attention to it, who procure the best animals to begin with. It would be no loss to the country, were the numerous specimens of scrub bulls, too often seen, condemned to perpetual exile.

But there is no reason why a portion of the male calves, at least, should not be reared as bullocks, either for the team or the butcher; and it is important that such as are reserved for this purpose should possess certain points indicative of future excellence, viz.: well-shaped head; small cars; short, thick neck; deep brisket; broad chest and shoulders; fine bone; long

Sec. 6.] FEEDING CATTLE AND CARE OF FARM-STOCK. 61

body, well rounded behind the shoulders ; straight back ; wide loins ; full quarters ; tail thin and tapering ; skin soft, and not too thin.

It is too often the case that animals are selected for rearing from being of pretty color — that takes the fancy of some member of the family — or the calf of some pet cow of the dairy-maid, without attention being paid to its promise of excellences. Not unfreqnently valuable calves are fattened for veal, simply because their color is unpleasing to the eye.

This is about the most important branch of the stock-raiser's business. Too many persons pursue the careless mode of the person who wrote the following item :

" In the spring of 1858 my two cows had bull calves, which I determined to raise for sale, and so gave them a good chance to grow, adding an extra in the shape of a handful of barley meal, with their feeds of milk. They grew finely, or rather Bobby did, for Billy, taking a sudden dislike to sour milk, had rather slim rations for the last six weeks befoi-e weaning. I told him he might starve if he liked, and took no special pains to humor his fancies. In September I had an offer of $6 for Bobby, and concluded to let him go, but the buyer was behind time about two Aveeks, and thought the additional keeping worth nothing, so I did not turn him off. So, of course, Bobby was kept, and grew up to propagate the race of Bob calves."

78. Calves — Give them Sheltert — It is almost impossible to winter calves without shelter ; if they survive the winter, they are mere skeletons, and have to be lifted up before spring, and never make anything but poor, raw- boned, unprofitable stock. Sheep are many times allowed to pick up what they can get for half the winter; but the dead lambs, and probably dead sheep, that lie scattered over the fields, tell the profit of such a course. When protected, all food not required to maintain the natural waste of the system goes toward increasing the growth of the animal. To obtain perfect form, animals should be kept continually growing until they arrive at maturity. They are often turned out in the spring so poor that it requires half the summer to make them as good as they were the fall before — a loss of three quarfeis of the year iii the growth of the animal. A grazier lately said to us, in speaking of such a lot of cattle that he bought, "It took the whole summer to soak their hides loose, so that they could begin to grow. They seemed as hard and dry as a pair of old boots, and in some spots as destitute of hair."

79. Training SteerSi — At the Maine State Fair, a boy of fifteen years, from the town of Woodstock, had a pair of three-year-old steers, whicli obeyed him as an obedient boy will his parents. By a motion of his hand they would go forward, halt, and return, go to the right or left, kneel down, and perform other things, much to the surprise of some older farmers, who are in the habit of putting the brad through the hide. At a New York State Fair there was a perfect Barey of an ox-tanier, wlio practices breaking steers for farmers, and as he never treats them inhumanly, he soon has them under perfect control, and as bidable as well- trained children.

62 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.

80. Unruly AnimalSi — As a general rule, our domestic animals arc never unruly, cxcej)! wlicn taught to be so. For instance, some persons, in turning stock from one Held to another, only let down a few of tlie top rails or bars, and force the animals to jump over. Too lazy to put up as well as to let down, they leave the gap lialf closed, as a temptation to the stock to jump back again. A few practical lessons of this kind make stock unruly. Care- lessness in regard to putting up fences when thrown down, or in repairing weak spots, confirms the habit. A writer says his practice has always been to teach his cows, calves, sheep, and hogs to go through or under, rather tlian over, the bars or fences, always leaving a rail or bar up at the top. Taught this way, they never think of jumping, and he has never been troubled with unruly animals, even when his fences were low.

81. Kindness to Brutcsi — No man can afford to be unkind to his domestic animals, because animals which are treated tlie most kindly arc the most gentle and obedient, and also thrive the best; hence, no one can afford to use them unkindly. By kindness, mingled with firmness, the most ferocious animals are subdued, and it is vain to suppose that the same means would not be eflectnal in training domestic animals. Surel}', no one should degrade himself by continuing a practice wliich is both unprofitable and inhuman — a practice that makes man the brute instead of the quadruped. There is no economy in half starving any stock through the winter, and causing them to take all the storms without any shelter ; but, on the contrary, it is a clear waste and loss to the owner.

82. Shelter for Cattlet — Next to the necessity of an adequate supply of food for stock, comes the iinjwrtance of shelter. It needs no argument to prove the truism that animals can not live without food; and it is just as certain that our domestic stock, artificially susceptible to the storms and changes of our Northern climate, can not thrive without proper shelter. It seems now to be well settled, that a due degree of warmth is equivalent, in a measure, to food ; and Ave all know that an entire abandoii to ease and comfort, while in a state of rest — a perfect freedom from apprehension of any kind, which may arise from a lack of food, or from exposure, or any other cause — is neccssarj' to the maximum of thrift or usefulness.

On old, improved, rich lands, it would be policy in the farmer to stable or yard his cattle and horses during the whole year ; but I should prefer yarding in the summer season, as more air and room for exercise would be allowed, both of which would be conducive to the health of the animals.

One acre of land, in good condition, sown to corn, and cut and fed from the time it begins to tassel iintil it begins to glaze, will keep six head of cattle during the time, and perhaps more — say two montiis — while it would have taken six acres of pasture to keep them the same length of time.

On farms where the pasture is generally the roughest, poorest part of the farm, and that whicii could not be applied as profitably to other purposes — on such lands the cattle must be allowed to get their own living in summer.

Tlic above are excerpta from several excellent essays in the Genesee

Sec. 6.] FEEDING CATTLE AND CARE OF FARM-STOCK. 63

Fanner, and might have been much more extended, only that we have a great many other good things to glean from other sources.

83. Straw for Cattlei — Mr. Johnson says, in a letter to the Genesee Farmer : " You say that I put straw in my boxes for my cows. This is not so. No man ever saw me feed straw to cattle, at least for the last twenty -five years. K they choose, they can eat the straw spread out for litter, but I never compel them to eat straw. I know cattle can be fatted on grain and straw, but I don't think so profitably as part grain and part hay, or part oil-cake and part hay. Grass is the natural food of sheep and cattle ; and hay made from grass, if properly made, puts on fat, even if very little else is fed. I am satisfied that either cows or fatting cattle do much better in yards, with auijile sheds and plenty of straw for clean, dry beds. I can not feed any kind of stock profitably unless they have such beds."

84. Wintering Cattle. — There is yet a good deal of wisdom to be learned upon this subject, even by those whose talk is of bullocks, and particularly in wintering calves. The one great error is in neglecting them in autumn, after the frost has destroyed the 'sweetness of the grass, and allowing them to commence getting poor before winter feeding is commenced. Tliere is no error more fatal to success than such neglect. It is often the foundation of disease that the animal never recovers from. Tliere is no condition so good for an animal going into winter quarters as a thriving fatness; and if that can be kept up till mid-winter, the danger of starvation upon very light feed in the spring is greath' diminished. It is one of the worst things in all farm economy to neglect feeding stock in the fall, because it is not yet time to begin to fodder. You had better begin in July, if your pasture fails, so that your animals begin to lose flesh. All that is saved of fodder in the fall, iipon the plea that "caltle can shift a wliile longer," exactly verifies the old saw about " saving at the spigot and wasting at the bung."

85. Feeding Pumpkinst — A subscriber sends a long communication against feeding pumpkins to cows. The writer's reasoning is not entirely sound, and does not agree with our own experience and observation. As a general rule, we are quite sure that pumpkins increase rather than diminish the quantity of milk ; and instead of making neat stock grow poor, we have fattened large numbers of cattle on pumpkins alone. There is one suggestion in our correspondent's letter, however, which may be worthy of attention. He refers to the fact that the seeds of pumpkins have a decided diuretic (urine- producing) eflect upon the human organs, and that if they have the same eflect upon cows, the excessive flow of urine must necessarily reduce the flow of the milky fluid. He advises that when pumpkins are fed, the seeds should be taken out. The idea is plausible, and worth being acted on.

86. Keeping Stocli Warm, and Variety of Food. — Man craves a variety of food ; that is, a variety of substances, either one of which would sustain life, but would not be satisfactory. Nature demands the variation, and the mix- ing together tlie several substafices. Why ? Simply because no one will give all the elements that go to make up the animal economy. One article

64 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.

furnishes phosphate for bones, which another article is destitute of, yet it may contain matter tliat will clothe the bones with muscle. Food that con- tains neither fat nor sugar will be found sufficient to keep up the animal heat. Food that contained all the elements of bone, muscle, fiber, fat, and heat-producing qualities, might be so concentrated as to be unhealthy.

A man fed upon pemmican, would have a disposition to eat straw, husks, and twigs, or gnaw the bark from trees, to get something to distend the stomach and enable it to perform its functions healthily. Let this be thought of in feeding domestic animals. It will furnish an easy rule for your guidance. Judge them by yourself, and act accordingly ; you will find it an easy and sure road to success. We do not for animals, quadruped or biped, recommend a variety of food at the same meal — only a change from time to time, so as to give variety, and consequently all the elements neces- sary to produce growth.

Never neglect to give your cattle water until you learn to do without it yourself, and never ofier them drink where you would vomit if compelled to slake your own tliiret.

Never leave a horse, a cow, a sheep, out in a cold winter storm, until you arrive at that condition of unfeelingness that you could endure it yourcelf. When you think 3-ou could find comfortable shelter under a common rail fence, you may leave your cattle there. No domestic animal can ever reach the highest state of perfection its nature is capable of unless always kept in a healthy, growing condition, in an equable climate, or in warm shelter if the inhabitant of a cold one.

Farmers do not i)ay sufficient attention to the warmth of their stock, but Buflor them to roam about in the open air, exposed to the inclement weather. The amount of exercise is another most important point to attend to. The more an animal moves about, the quicker it will breathe, and the more starch, gum, sugar, fat, and other respiratory elements it must have in its food ; and if au additional quantity of these substances be not given to supplj' the increased demand, the fat and other parts of the bodv will be drawn upon, and the animal will become thiimer ; also, as before observed, every motion of the body produces a corre-sponding destruction of the mus- cles which produce that motion. It is therefore quite evident that the more the animal moves about, the more of the heat-producing and flesh-forming principle it must receive in its food. Ilence we sec the propriety of keepino' our cattle in sheds and yards, and not suffering those (particularly which wc intend to fatten) to rove about, consuming more food, and wasting away more rapidly the various tissues of the body already formed, and making it more expensive and difficult to fatten them.

87. Fattrnin;; Cattle upon Hay. — Speaking upon this subject, a committee of the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture, of which John Brooks and Paoli Lathrop are members, remark :

" Fattening cattle in winter upon hay alone is a resort of many farmer?, and where hay is plenty and distant from market, the practice is not iucon-

Seo. 6.] FEEDING CATTLE AND CARE OF FABM-STOCK. 65

sistent with economy. If well attended, good animals consuming four per cent, of their live weight of good hay daily, will gain daily two pounds of flesh. Suppose the flesh gained to be worth 16 cents, it will be equal to $8 a ton for the haJ^ The better practice, however, is to give only three per cent, of the live weight of the animal in hay daily, and an equivalent for the other one per cent, in Indian meal or roots. The gam would be greater for the same cost of food."

Another remark worth quoting is the following :

"The best age for feeding cattle for beef is from four to eight years. Young growing cattle may be fattened, but it will require more food in pro- portion, and longer time."

88. How to Feed Roots. — There seems to be much diversity of opinion as to the value of turnips, carrots, etc., for feeding. One man feeds his hogs a great amount of them, but neglects to provide a bed secure from the intru- sion of cold winds and snow, and then wonders they do not grow ; or feeds a cow four bushels per day, and wonders she does not fat. How could she ? She is almost physicked to death, and her urinary organs are injured by over-exertion ; and although she is thoroughly littered with straw, still her feet are in the water ; and when she lies down, her side is wet.

After many trials in a similar way, many have come to the conclusion that root feeding is an unprofitable business in our climate. If hogs must sleep in snow-banks, give thetn corn by all means, and give them plenty of it. If cattle can not be stabled, or kept so sheltered that they may be dry, then roots will not give one half the return they would under a judicious system of management.

After many trials of fattening sheep and horned cattle, and feeding store stock of all kinds with roots, I came to the conclusion that they are all valu- able when properly fed witli liay and grain, but that their relative value to grain is often overrated in tliis country of cheap corn. Roots, unless cooked, aie not economical food for swine.

The great error in relation to feeding roots is, that they are too much fed to the exclusion of grain. A farmer lias shoats to winter, or horned cattle to fatten ; he first feeds his turnips, carrots, beets, small potatoes ; next his corn or meal. This is wrong. The corn should be fed from the first. A dozen shoats of 100 lbs. eacli would profitably receive a bushel per day of roots, if cooked with corn. A fattening ox should have one busliel, or not over two, per day, with six or eiglit quarts of meal. Cows should have one half bushel per day, whether being milked or not. That amount will bring them out, iu the spring, fat and ready to do good service at the pail, provided, of course, that they have hay and stalks in due proportion. Calves and yearlings should always have one fourth bushel per day, with a very small allowance of grain.

The above is partly from the Stoeh Joui'nal, and the following from the Workijig Farmer j both of wliich are good authority.

We beg again to remind our readers, particularly those who are engaged

66 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Ciiap. I.

in dairy and etock farming, to appropriate a full aniouiit of land to root- growing. Carrots, beets, turnips, parsneps, may all be raised witli protit wherever stock is to he fed. For horses, carrots arc invaluable. For milch cows, tliey not only furnish a milk of superior flavor, butter of fine color and odor, but, when used as a portion of tlieir food, they guarantee a healthful condition. Tlie power of the pectic acid of the carrot to gelatinize all veg- etable matter held in solution in the stomach, puts its contents in such a condition that the peristaltic motion of the intestines can manage it. Flat- ulence is prevented, and thorough digestion secured. The dung of the horse fed partly on carrots, never contains tlie undecomposed shell of the oat, nor large amounts of starch unappropriated ; and it is for this reason tliat a bushel of oats and a bushel of carrots will do more for the horse than two bushels of oats ; and not because the carrot contains as much flesh- making material as the oat, but because it causes all the flesh-making ma- terial of the oat to be appropriated, instead of being voided witii the excretia. For cows and oxen, otiier roots may occasionally be substituted with profit, as variety to all animals is pleasing in tlieir food ; and no one root should be so continuously used. Since the introduction of pulping machines, pulped roots mixed with cut hay, cut straw, and other cheap material, add much to the economy of the f;irm as well as to tlie licalth of the cattle.

89. Feeding Linseed and fotton-seed Oil-fake. — Never having had per- sonal experience enough in feeding oil-cake, having always preferred corn- meal, to give an opinion which we would ask others to rely upon, we select the following from a lecture by Prof. Yoelcker, before the meeting of the council of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, in June, 1S60. It is worthy of attention from all cattle-feeders. lie says :

" It is not my object, in giving a practical turn to the lecture to-day, to record any experiments of my own, or in any way to presume to teach the feeder of stock in what way he may best expend his money in the puichase of food, but I shall endeavor simply to give to the practical man some indi- cations whereby I hope he will be enabled to form for himself a trustworthy opinion respecting the relative value of dilferent cakes, and likewise what is perhaps of more iin})ortance to him, to introduce some remarks which will enable Iiim to distinguish a good from a bad cake ; and in conclusion, shall allude briefly to the various substances with which oil-cakes are at the pres- ent time often largely adulterated.

90. Fat iu Food< — "Let me first point out to you some peculiarities in the composition of oil-cakes. A reference to their composition is necessary to the understanding tlie remarks which will follow. I would then observe, that what ciiaracterizes oil-cakes, distinguishing them from all other articles of food ])re-eminently, is the large amount of oil that is left in the cakes, obtained by expression of the oil-seeds. If you glance at the diagram (see table on page 71), you Avill find that they contain a considerable quantity of oil — from C to 12 per cent. ; and in some instances, as in the decorticated cotton-cake, even 16 per cent, of oil. I may observe at once that the value

Sec. 6.] FEEDING CATTLE AND CARE OF FARM-STOCK. 67

of oil-cake in a very great measure depends upon the amount of oil which is left in the cake. And I may further say, that the tendency of the manufac- turer at the present day is to produce an inferior description of cake, inas much as improved machinery enables him to sr^ueeze out more oil than formerly, and thus to render the refuse less fattening, less valuable to the feeder of stock. I am very much inclined to believe that the oil is by far the most valuable constituent of all oil-cakes. I am aware that it was the fashion, not many years ago, to measure the feeding properties and even the fattening qualities of articles of food by the amount of nitrogenous or flesh- forming matters ; but these views are not supported by any practical experiments, nor, indeed, by the every-day experience that we liavc respect- ing not only human, but cattle food. We pay more for food rich in starch, mucilage, and matters capable of producing fat, than we pay for food which, like bean-meal, is extremely rich in nitrogenous matter, but which does not produce so much butcliers' meat. It is a matter of much importance to the farmer to know how much he gets back for the money he expends in the purchase of food. I have no hesitation in saying that more money is made by the purchase of food rich in oil, starch, or sugar, than in the purchase of food which contains an excess of nitrogenous matters.

91. Flesh hi Food. — "Still, we ought not to leave unnoticed that the flesh-forming matters are very important indeed, and that oil-cakes are peculiarly rich in them. In one sense they are perhaps most essential — per- haps even more essentially necessary than the other constituents of food which produce fat, or are employed in the animal economy to keep up the animal heat. They are more important in this sense ; whereas the animal or- ganization has the power to make fat from gum, sugar, nmcilage, and even from young cellulose or young vegetable fiber, it has not the power of making a particle of flesh. Unless, therefore, food is given to animals which contains ready-made flesh, an animal can not grow, and the other constituents of food remain unavailable. It is in this sense that the nitrogenous matters of food are extremely valuable ; but in a purely practical sense they are not so val- uable as the oil, starch, or sugar of food, because by spending a certain amount of money in food, we do not get so great a return in the shape of butchers' meat by purchasing these flesh-forming matters as by purchasing feeding substances rich in oil or starch. However, in speaking of the relative value of the various constituents, especially tlie oily and the flesh-forming constit- uenis, we are not to overlook that the quantity of nitrogenous matter which is not applied for tlie formation of flesh, passes through the animal, and is ol)tained again in the dung, with the exception of a small quantity tliat escapes by evaporation through the skin or through the lungs. A certain quantity of nitrogenous food evaporates through the skin, or with the per- spiration ; but by far the largest proportion, according to some experiments, nineteen twentieths, of the flesh-forming or nitrogenous matters of food are found again in the dung ; according to otliers the amount is seven eighths. But, speaking in round numbers, I think we are not far wrong iii saying that

68 . DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [Chap. I.

we may fairly expect tliree fourtlis of tlie nitiogcuized matters of oil-cake back again in the mamire ; .iiid periiaps we are safe, likewise, in asserting tliat fully one lialf of tlie money valne of rape and the best cotton cakes is ob- tained back again in tlie manure. So we must not put down these constit- uents, which arc called nitrogenous, as useless, because they alone do not produce much butchers' meat ; nor must we estimate the value of oil-cake entirely by tlie increase in the live weight of cattle fed upon the cake, but also, and chieflv, I believe, by the increased value of the manure which is l)r()duced througli the instrumentality of oil-cake.

92. Bone in Foodi — " I will now direct attention to the inorganic matters or ash of oil-cakes. These inorganic matters may be called bone material ; for the ash of oil-cakes is particularly rich in i)hosi>hates of lime, or the ma- terial of which the greater \>a.i-t of the bone is composed. Now, the large proijortion of oil ; next, the large pri-yjtortion of flesh-forming matters; and third, a considerable proportion of bone material are characteristics that confer a i)articular value upon oil-cake, either directly as food, or indirectly as useful material for increasing the value of farm-yard manure. For let me observe, that oily matters and substances tliat make butchers' meat arc the most valuable constituents in all feeding materials, and therefore also in an oil-cake. On the other hand, the flcsh-forining constituents and the bone- forming materials — in other words, the nitrogen and the phosphates of tlie cake — are the two most valuable fertilizing constituents. "\Vc have thus in oil-cakes, in a concentrated state, materials that produce butchers' meat, and, at tlie same time, yield the most valuable fertilizing constituents. There is no other description of food which unites these useful properties.

93. LiilSfFll-fakei — " You are all aware we disiinguisii chieily the follow- ing kii\(ls of linseed-cake : English cake, American cake, and foreign cakes. Among foreign cakes there are various descriptions. There is the Baltic, the Marseilles, the Naples cake, and various others. We have here an ex- cellent specimen of good English cake. The English cake is made now of two qualities, thick and thin cake ; the latter is made in imitation of the American barrel cake, of which specimens are before you. You observe how closely the tliin English cake resembles the American bari'el cake. The latter has gained much favor, and therefore the manufacturers in England liave found it to their advantage to imitate the form in which it is sold. In the first place, notice that the American cake occasionally is as bad as English and foreign cakes. It is not every description of American cake which is good, but generally speaking, as it comes into the market, espe- cially the barrel cake, it is of a very superior character. But the question whether it is generally superior to the English cake or not, is one which is not very readily decided ; you may get English cake quite as good, if "not be' tor, than tlie American cake.

'• Soiue years ago it was the fashion to buy the English cake in preference to any oilier, but it is now the fashion to buy the American barrel cake. I can only account for this by the fact that the English cake, being produced

Seo. 6.] FEEDING CATTLE AND CARE OF FARM-STOCK. 69

in good quality, was rapidly consumed; the American cake was usually

scut in a very damaged condition to this country, coming as it did in bat^s • our sharp American friends very soon found that they must send their cake here in a good condition. They dried it previously to sending it over and imported it in barrels, and this improved condition of the American cake greatly increased its reputation, which has been kept up ; so that at the pres out time in most markets, American cake, especially the barrel cake, fetches a iiigher price than the English. But a reference to the diagram will show you tliat there is no essential diiFerence between good English cake and good American ; indeed, if anything, the advantage is in favor of the speci- mens of English cake. The difference is extremely small. There is the same quantity of oil in both cases. The proportion of flesh-forming matters is rather larger in the English than in the American. There is the same amount of ash in both. Tlie proportion of sand hardly amounts to one pey cent, in tlie English cake, and in the American it is only a half per cent. Tliese differences are extremely small and unimportant, so that you may get, and often do